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GRAY'S  LESSON^S   IN^  B0TA:N^Y 


REVISED     EDITION 


THE 


ELEMENTS    OF    BOTANY 


FOR   BEGINNERS   AND    FOR   SCHOOLS 


By    ASA    GRAY 


NEW  YORK-:. CINCINNATI-: -CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


GRAY'S  BOTAMICAL  SERIES 


Gray's  How  Plants  Grow 
Gray's  How  Plants  Behave 
*Gray's  Lessons  in  Botany 
Gray's  Field,  Forest,  and  Garden  Botany 

(Flora  only) 

*Gray's  School  and  Field  Book  of  Botany 

(Lessons  and  Flora) 

Gray's  Manual  of  Botany.     (Flora  only) 
*Gray's  Lsssons  and  Manual  of  Botany 
Gray's  Botanical  Text-Book 

I.     Gray's  Structural  Botany 
II.     Goodale's  Physiological  Botany 

Coulter's  Manual  of  Botany  of  the  Rocky 

Mountains 
Gray    and    Coulter's   Text-Book    of 

Western  Botany 


EDITIONS  OF  1901 
*Leavitt's  Outlines  of  Botany 

(Based  on  Gray's  Lessons) 

*Leavitt's  Outlines  of  Botany  with  Flora 

(Outlines  and  Gray's  Field,  Forest,  and  Garden  Botany) 

*Leavitt's  Outlines  and  Gray's  Manual 


Copyright,   1S87,  by  Asa  Gray 


REV.   LESSONS 
w.  p.  27 


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tt  PREFACE. 


O         This  volume  takes  the  place  of  the  author's  Lessons  in  Botany 

C^      AND  Vegetable  Physiology,  published   over  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 

^     tury  ago.     It  is  constructed  on  the   same  lines,  and  is  a  kind 

of  new  and  much  revised  edition  of  that  successful  work.     While 

in  some  respects  more  extended,  it  is  also  more  concise  and  terse 

?«■     than  its  predecessor.     This  should  the  better  fit  it  for  its  purpose 

^     now  that  competent  teachers  are  common.    They  may  in  many  cases 

^     develop  paragraphs  into  lectures,  and  fully  illustrate  points  which 

arc  barely,  but  it  is  hoped  clearly,  stated.     Indeed,  even  for  those 

without  a  teacher,  it  may  be  that  a  condensed  is  better  than  a 

c     ^   diffuse  exposition. 

;  cj  The  book  is  adapted  to  the  higher  schools,  "  How  Plants  Grow 
5  ^  and  Behave  "  being  the  "  Botany  for  Young  People  and  Common 
Schools."  It  is  intended  to  ground  beginners  in  Structural  Botany 
and  the  principles  of  vegetable  life,  mainly  as  concerns  Flowering 
or  Phanerogamous  plants,  with  which  botanical  instruction  should 
always  begin  ;  also  to  be  a  companion  and  interpreter  to  the  Man- 
uals and  Floras  by  which  the  student  threads  his  flowery  way  to 
a  clear  knowledge  of  the  surrounding  vegetable  creation.  Such  a 
book,  like  a  grammar,  must  needs  abound  in  technical  words, 
which  thus  arrayed  may  seem  formidable ;  nevertheless,  if  rightly 
apprehended,  this  treatise  should  teach  that  the  study  of  bot- 
any is  not  the  learning  of  names  and  terms,  but  tlie  acquisition 
of  knowledge  and  ideas.  No  effort  should  be  made  to  com- 
mit technical  terras  to  memory.  Any  term  used  in  describing  a 
plant  or  explaining  its  structure  can  be  looked  up  when  it  is 
wanted,  and   that  should  suffice.     On  the  other  hand,   plans  of 


392415 


iv  PREFACE. 

structure,  types,  adaptations,  and  modifications,  once  understood, 
are  not  readily  forgotten  ;  and  they  give  meaning  and  interest  to 
the  technical  terms  used  in  exi)laining  thera. 

In  these  "Elements"  naturally  no  mention  has  been  made  of 
certain  terms  and  names  which  recent  cryptogamically-minded 
botanists,  with  lack  of  proportion  and  just  perspective,  are  en- 
deavoring to  introduce  into  phanerogamous  botany,  and  wliich  are 
not  needed  nor  appropriate,  even  in  more  advanced  works,  for  the 
adequate  recognition  of  tlie  ascertained  analogies  and  liomologies. 

As  this  volume  will  be  the  grammar  and  dictionary  to  more  than 
one  or  two  Manuals,  Floras,  etc.,  the  particular  directions  for  pro- 
cedure which  were  given  in  the  "  First  Lessons  "  are  now  relegated 
to  those  works  themselves,  which  in  their  new  editions  will  pro- 
vide the  requisite  explanations.  On  the  other  hand,  in  view  of 
such  extended  use,  the  Glossary  at  the  end  of  this  book  has  been 
considerably  enlarged.  It  will  be  found  to  include  not  merely  the 
common  terms  of  botanical  description  but  also  many  which  are 
unusual  or  obsolete  ;  yet  any  of  them  may  now  and  then  be  encoun- 
tered. Moreover,  no  small  number  of  tlie  Latin  and  Greek  words 
which  form  the  whole  or  part  of  the  commoner  specific  names  are 
added  to  this  Glossary,  some  in  an  Anglicized,  others  in  their  Latin 
form.  This  may  be  helpful  to  students  with  small  Latin  and  less 
Greek,  in  catching  the  meaning  of  a  botanical  name  or  term. 

The  illustrations  in  this  volume  are  largely  increased  in  number. 
They  are  mostly  from  the  hand  of  Isaac  Sprague. 

It  happens  that  the  title  chosen  for  tliis  book  is  that  of  the 
author's  earliest  publication,  in  the  year  1830,  of  which  copies  are 
rarely  seen  ;  so  that  no  inconvenience  is  likely  to  arise  from  the 
present  use  of  the  name.  * 

ASA  GRAY. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
March,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


Paob 

SECTION  I.    INTRODUCTORY ,    .    .    .  9 

SKCTION  II.     FLAX  AS  A  PAT  TERN  PLANT 11 

Growtli  from  the  Seed,  Organs  of  Vegetation 11 

Blossoming,  Flower,  &c 14 

SECTION  IIL     MORPHOLOGY  OF  SEEDLINGS 15 

Germinating  Maples 15 

Cotyledons  thickened,  hypogaeons  in  germination 18 

Store  of  Food  external  to  the  Embryo 20 

Cotyledons  as  to  number 22 

Dicotyledonous  and  Polycotyledonous 28 

Monocotyledonous 24 

Simple-stemmed  Plants 26 

SECTION  IV.     GROWTH  FROM  BUDS;   BRANCHING  .     ...  27 

Buds,  situation  and  kinds 27 

Vigorous  vegetation  from  strong  Buds 28 

Arrangement  of  Branches 29 

Non-developed,  Latent,  and  Accessory  Buds 30 

Ejuimoration  of  kinds  of  Buds 31 

Definite  and  Indefinite  growth  ;  Deliquescent  and  Excurrent    .  31 

SECTION  V.     ROOTS 33 

Primary  and  Secondary.     Contrast  between  Stem  and  Root     .  34 

Fibrous  and  Fleshy  Roots  ;  names  of  kinds 34 

Anomalous  Roots.     Epiphytic  and  Parasitic  Plants      ....  30 

Duration  :  Annuals,  Biennials,  Perennials 37 

SECTION  VL     STEMS 38 

Those  above  Ground  :  kinds  and  modifications 39 

Subterranean  Stems  and  I'.r.iiiclies 42 

Rootstock,  42.     Tuber,  44.     ("orm,  45      Bulb  and  Bulblets   .     .  40 

Consolidated  Vegetation 47 

SECTION  VII.     LEAVES 49 

§  1.     Leaves  as  Foliage 49 

Parts  and  Venation 50 

Forms  as  to  general  outline 52 

As  to  apex  and  particular  outline 53 


vi  CONTENTS. 

As  to  lobing  or  division 66 

Compound,  Perfoliate,  and  Equitant  Leaves 67 

Witli  no  distinction  of  Petiole  and  Blade,  Pliyllodia,  &c.  ...  61 

§  2.     Leaves  of  Special  Conformation  and  Use     ....  62 

Leaves  for  storage 62 

Leaves  as  bud-scales,  63,  Spines,  64,  and  for  Climbing      ...  64 

Pitchers,  64,  and  Fly-traps 65 

§  3.     Stipules 66 

§  4.    The  Arrangement  of  Leaves 67 

Phyllotaxy,  67,  of  Alternate  Leaves 69 

Of  Opposite  and  VVhorled  Leaves 71 

Venation  or  Praefoliation 71 

SECTION  Vin.     FLOWERS 72 

§  1.    Position  and  Arrangement,  Inflorescence    ....  73 

Raceme,  73,  Corymb,  Umbel,  Spike,  Head 74 

Spadix,  Catkin,  or  Ament 75 

Panicle:  Determinate  Inflorescence 76 

Cyme,  Fascicle,  Glomeruie,  Scorpioid  or  Heliooid  Cymes    .     .  77 

Mixed  Inflorescence 78 

§  2.    Parts  or  Organs  of  the  Flower 79 

Floral  Envelopes  :  Perianth,  Calyx,  Corolla 79 

Essential  Organs  :  Stamen,  Pistil 80 

Torus  or  Receptacle 81 

§  3.     Plan  of  the  Flower 81 

When  perfect,  complete,  regular,  or  symmetrical 81 

Numerical  Plan  and  Alternation  of  Organs 82 

Flowers  are  altered  branches 83 

§  4.     Modifications  of  the  Type 85 

Unisexual  or  diclinous 85 

Incomplete,  Irregular,  and  Unsymmetrical 86 

Flowers  with  Multiplication  of  Parts 88 

Flowers  with  Union  of  Parts  :   Coalescence 88 

Regular  Forms,  89,  Irregular  Forms 90 

Papilionaceous,  91,  Labiate,  92,  and  Ligulate  Corollas  ....  93 

Adnation  or  Consolidation 94 

Position  of  Flower  or  of  its  Parts 96 

§  5.     Arrangement  of  Parts  in  the  Bdd 97 

.^istivation  or  Praefloration,  its  kinds 97 

SECTION  IX.     STAMENS  IN  PARTICULAR 98 

Androecium,  98,   Insertion,  Relation,  &c 99 

Anther  and  Filament.     Pollen 101 

SECTION  X.     PISTILS  IN  PARTICULAR 105 

§  1.     Angiospermous  ok  Ordinary  Gynceciim 105 

Parts  of  a  complete  Pistil 105 

Carpels,  Simple  Pistil 106 


CONTENTS.  vii 

Compound  Pistil  witli  Cells  and  Axile  Placentae 107 

One-celled  with  Free  Central  Placenta 108 

One-celled  with  I'aiietal  Placentae 108 

§  2.     Gymnospermous  Gyncecium 109 

SECTION  XI.     OVULES 110 

Their  Parts,  Insertion,  and  Kinds Ill 

SECTION  XII.     MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  RECEPTACLE  .     .  112 

Torus,  Stipe,  Carpopiiore,  Disk 113 

SECTION  XIII.     FERTILIZATION 114 

§  1.     Adaptations  for  Pollinatiox  of  the  STroMA   .     .     .  114 

Close  and  Cross  Fertilization,  Aneinophilousand  Entomophiloiis  115 

Dichogamy  and  Heterogony 116 

§  2.    Action  of  the  Pollen  and  Formation  ok  the  Emisuyo  117 

SECTION  XIV.     THE  FRUIT 117 

Nature  and  kinds 118 

Berry,  Pepo,  Pome 119 

Drupe  and  Akene 120 

Cremocarp,  Caryopsis,  Nut 121 

Follicle,  Legume,  Capsule 122 

Capsular  Dehiscence,  Silique  and  Silicle 123 

Pyxis,  Strobile  or  Cone 124 

SECTION  XV.     THE  SEED 125 

Seed-coats  and  their  appendages 125 

The  Kernel  or  Nucleus,  Pimbryo  and  its  parts,  AlbuiiiLU     .     .  127 

SECTION  XVI.     VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  WORK 128 

§  1.     Anatomical  Strlctuue  and  Growth 129 

Nature  of  Growth,  Protoplasm 129 

Cells  and  Cell-walls.     Cellular  Structure  or  Tissue     ....  130 

Strengthening  Cells.     Wood,  Wood-cells,  Vessels  or  Ducts      .  1-32 

§  2.     Cell  contents 136 

Sap,  Chlorophyll,  Starch 136 

Crystals,  Rhaphides 137 

§  3.     Anatomy  of  Roots  and  Stems 138 

Endogenous  and  Exogenous  Stems 139 

Particular  structure  of  the  latter 140 

Wood,  Sapwood  and  Heart-wood.     The  living  parts  of  a  Tree  141 

§  4.     Anatomy  of  Leaves 142 

Epidermis,  Stomata  or  Breathing  pores 143 

§  5.     Plant  Food  and  Assimilation 144 

§  6.     Plant  Work  and  Movement 149 

Movements  in  Cells  or  Cyclosis 149 

Transference  from  Cell  to  Cell 160 


viii  CONTENTS. 

Movements  of  Organs,  Twining  Stems,  Leaf-movements     .     .  150 

Movenieiits  of  Tendrils,  ISensiiiveness 152 

Movements  in  Flowers 153 

Movements  for  capture  of  Insects 154 

Work  costs,  using  up  Material  and  Energy 155 

SECTION  XVII.    CUYPTOGAMOUS  OU  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS  156 

Vascular  Cryptogams,  Pteridopliytes 156 

Horsetails  (Equisetacea;),  Ferns     . 157 

Club-Mosses  (Lycopodium),  &c 161 

Quillworts  (Isoiites),  Pillworts  (Marsilia) 161 

AzoUa.     Cellular  Cryptogams 162 

Bryopliytes.     Mosses  (Musci) 163 

Liverworts  (Hepaticse) 164 

Thallophytes 165 

Cliaraceae 167 

AlgEe,  Seaweeds,  &c 168 

Lichenes  or  Lichens 171 

Fungi 172 

SECTION  XVIII.     CLASSIFICATION   AND   NOMENCLATURE  175 

§  1.     Kinds  and  Relationship 175 

Species,  Varieties,  Individuals 176 

Genera,  Orders,  Classes,  &c 177 

§  2.     Names,  Terms,  and  Characters 178 

Nomenclature  of  Genera,  Species,  and  Varieties 179 

Nomenclature  of  Orders,  Classes,  &c.     Terminology  ....  180 

§  3.     System 181 

Artificial  and  Natural 182 

Synopsis  of  Series,  Classes,  &c 183 

SECTION  XIX.     BOTANICAL  WORK 184 

§  1.     Collection  or  Herborization 184 

§  2.     Herbarium 186 

§  3.     Investigation  and  Determination  of  Plants    .     .     .  187 

§  4.     Signs  and  Abbreviations 188 

Abbreviations  of  the  Namks  of  Botanists 190 

(jlossary  combined  with  Index 193 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 


Section   I.     INTRODUCTORY. 

1.  Botany  is  the  name  of  the  science  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
general  •   that  is,  of  plants. 

2.  Plants  may  be  studied  as  to  their  kinds  and  relationships.  This 
study  is  Systematic  Botany.  An  enumeration  of  the  kinds  of  vegetables, 
as  far  as  known,  classified  according  to  their  various  degrees  of  resemblance 
or  difference,  constitutes  a  general  System  of  j)li:i}it.i.  A  similar  account  of 
the  vegetables  of  any  particular  country  or  district  is  called  a  Flora. 

3.  Plants  may  be  studied  as  to  their  structure  and  parts.  This  is 
Structural  Botany,  or  Organography.  The  study  of  the  organs  or 
parts  of  plants  in  regard  to  the  different  forms  and  different  uses  which 
the  same  kind  of  organ  may  assume,  —  the  comparison,  for  instance,  of 
a  flower-leaf  or  a  bud-scale  with  a  common  leaf,  —  is  Vegetable  Mor- 
phology, or  Morphological  Botany.  The  study  of  the  minute  structure 
of  the  parti,  to  learn  by  the  microscope  what  they  themselves  are  formed 
of,  is  Vegetable  Anatomy,  or  Histology;  in  other  words,  it  is  Micro- 
scopical Structural  Botany.  The  study  of  the  actions  of  plants  or  of  their 
parts,  of  the  ways  in  which  a  plant  lives,  grows,  and  acts,  is  the  province 
of  Physiological  Botany,  or  Vegetable  Physiology. 

4.  This  book  is  to  teach  the  outlines  of  Structural  Botany  and  of  the 
simpler  parts  of  the  physiology  of  plants,  that  it  may  be  known  how 
plants  are  constructed  and  adapted  to  their  surroundings,  and  how  they 
live,  move,  propagate,  and  have  their  being  in  an  existence  no  less  real, 
although  more  simple,  than  that  of  the  animal  creation  which  they  support. 
Particularly,  this  book  is  to  teach  the  principles  of  the  structure  and  rela- 
tionsliips  of  plants,  the  nature  and  names  of  tlieir  parts  and  their  modifica- 
tions, and  so  to  prepare  for  the  study  of  Systematic  Botany ;  in  which  the 
learner  may  ascertain  the  name  and  the  place  in  the  system  of  any  or  all 
of  the  ordinary  plants  within  reach,  whether  wild  or  cultivated.  And  in 
ascertaining  the  name  of  any  plant,  the  student,  if  rightly  taught,  will  come 
to  know  all  about  its  general  or  particular  structure,  rank,  and  relationship 
to  other  plants. 


10  ELEMENTS   OF   BOTANY.  [SECTION    1, 

5.  The  vcgetahlc  kingdom  is  so  vast  and  various,  and  the  difference  is 
so  wide  between  ordinary  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs  on  the  one  hand,  and 
mosses,  moulds,  and  sueh  like  on  the  other,  that  it  is  hardly  possil)le  to 
frame  an  intelligible  aeeouut  of  plants  as  a  whole  without  contradictions 
or  misstatements,  or  endless  and  troublesome  qualifications.  If  we  say 
that  plants  come  from  seeds,  bear  flowers,  and  have  roots,  stems,  and 
leaves,  this  is  not  true  of  the  lower  orders.  It  is  best  for  the  beginner, 
therefore,  to  treat  of  the  higher  orders  of  plants  by  themselves,  without 
particular  reference  to  the  lower. 

6.  Let  it  be  understood,  accordingly,  that  there  is  a  higher  and  a  lower 
series  of  plants ;  namely :  — 

Phanerog.vmous  Plants,  which  come  from  seed  and  bear  fowers,  es- 
sentially stamens  and  jnstils,  through  the  co-operation  of  which  seed  is 
produced.  For  shortness,  these  are  commonly  called  Phanerogams,  or 
Phaenogams,  or  by  tlie  equivalent  English  name  of  Flowering  Plants.^ 

Cryptogamous  Plants,  or  Cryptogams,  come  from  minute  bodies,  which 
answer  to  seeds,  but  are  of  much  simpler  structure,  and  such  plants  have 
not  stamens  and  pistils.  Therefore  they  are  called  in  English  Flowerless 
Plants.  Such  are  Ferns,  Mosses,  Algse  or  Seaweeds,  Fungi,  etc.  These 
sorts  have  each  to  be  studied  separately,  for  each  class  or  order  has  a  plan 
of  its  own. 

7.  But  Phanerogamous,  or  Flowering,  Plants  are  all  constructed  on  one 
plan,  or  type.  That  is,  taking  almost  any  ordinary  herb,  shrub,  or  tree  for 
a  pattern,  it  will  exemplify  the  whole  series :  the  parts  of  one  plant  answer 
to  the  parts  of  any  other,  with  only  certain  differences  in  particulars.  And 
the  occupation  and  the  delight  of  the  scientific  botanist  is  in  tracing  out 
this  common  plan,  in  detecting  the  likenesses  under  all  the  diversities,  and 
in  noting  the  meaning  of  these  manifold  diversities.  So  the  attentive  study 
of  any  one  plant,  from  its  growth  out  of  the  seed  to  the  flowering  and 
fruiting  state  and  the  production  of  seed  like  to  that  from  which  the  plant 
grew,  would  not  only  give  a  correct  general  idea  of  the  structure,  growth, 
and  characteristics  of  Flowering  Plants  in  general,  but  also  serve  as  a  pat- 
tern or  standard  of  comparison.  Some  plants  will  serve  this  purpose  of  a 
pattern  much  better  than  others.  A  proper  pattern  will  be  one  that  is 
perfect  in  the  sense  of  having  all  the  principal  parts  of  a  phanerogamous 
plant,  and  simple  and  regular  in  having  these  parts  free  from  complications 
or  disguises.  The  common  Flax-plant  may  very  well  serve  this  purpose. 
Being  an  annual,  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  raised  and  carried 
in  a  short  time  through  its  circle  of  existence,  from  seedling  to  fruit  and 
seed. 

^  The  name  is  sometimes  Thanerogamons,  sometimes  Phcenoffamous  (Phanero- 
gams, or  TlKOingams),  terms  of  the  same  meanitiff  ctyninlociraily  ;  the  former  of 
preferable  form,  but  ihe  latter  shorter.  The  meaning  of  sueh  terms  is  explained 
in  the  Glossary. 


SECTION   2.] 


A  PATTERN   PLANT. 


11 


Section   II.     FLAX   AS   A  PATTERN   PLANT. 

8.  Growth  from  the  Seed.  Phanerogamous  plants  grow  from  seed, 
and  their  flowers  are  desthied  to  the  production  of  seeds.  A  seed  has  a 
rudimentary  plant  ready  formed  in  it,  —  sometimes  with  the  two  most 
essential  parts,  i.  e.  stem  and  leaf,  plainly  discernible ;  sometimes  with  no 
obvious  distinction  of  organs  until  germination  begins.  This  incipient 
plant  is  called  an  Embryo. 

9.  In  this  section  the  Piax-])lant  is  taken  as  a  specimen,  or  type,  and 
the  development  and  history  of  common  plants  in  general  is  illustrated  by 
it.  In  flax-seed  the  embryo  nearly  fills  the  coats,  but  not  quite.  There 
is  a  small  deposit  of  nourishment  between  the  seed-coat  and  the  embryo : 
this  may  for  the  present  be  left  out  of  the  account.  This  embryo  consists 
of  a  pair  of  leaves,  pressed  together  face  to  face,  and  attached  to  an  ex- 
tremely short  stem.  (Fig.  2-4.)  In  this  nidimentary  condition  the  real 
nature  of  the  parts  is  not  at  once  apparent ;  but  when  the  seed  grows  they 
promptly  reveal  their  character,  —  as  the  accompanying  figures  (Fig.  5-7) 
show. 


10.  Before  the  nature  of  these  parts  in  the  seed  was  altogether  under- 
stood, technical  names  were  given  to  them,  which  are  still  in  use.  These 
initial  leaves  were  named  Cotyledons.  The  initial  stem  on  which  they 
stand  was  called  the  Radicj^e.  That  was  because  it  gives  rise  to  the  first 
root ;  but,  as  it  is  really  the  beginning  of  the  stem,  and  because  it  is  the 
stem  that  produces  the  root  and  not  the  root  that  produces  the  stem,  it  is 
better  to  name  it  the  Caulicle.  Recently  it  has  been  named  Hypocotyle ; 
which  signifies  something  below  the  cotyledons,  without  pronouncing  what 
its  nature  is. 


Fig.  1.  PodofFkx.  2.  Section  lengthwise,  sliowing  two  of  the  seeds;  one  whole, 
the  other  cut  half  away,  bringing  contained  embryo  into  view.  3.  Similar  section 
of  a  flax-seed  more  magnified  and  divided  flatwise;  turned  round,  so  that  the 
stem-end  (caulicle)  of  the  embryo  is  below:  the  whole  broad  upper  part  is  the 
inner  face  of  one  of  the  cotyledons;  the  minute  nick  at  its  base  is  the  plumule. 
4.  Similar  section  through  a  seed  turned  edgewise,  showing  the  thickness  of  the 
cotyledons,  and  the  minute  plumiile  between  them,  i.  e.  the  minute  bud  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  caulicle. 


12 


A  PATTERN   PLANT. 


[SECTION   2. 


^ 


11.  On  committ  ing  tlieso  seeds  to  moist  and  warm  soil  tbcj  soon  sprout, 
i.  e.  (jermimte.  Tlic  very  short  stem-part  of  the  embryo  is  the  first  to 
grow.  It  lengthens,  protrudes  ils  rool-eud ;  this  turns  downward,  if  not 
already  pointing  in  that  direction,  and  while  it  is  Icngthoning  a  root  forms 
at  its  point  and  grows  downward  into  the  ground.  This  root  continues  to 
grow  on  from  its  lower  end,  and  tlius  insinuates  itself  and 
penetrates  into  tlie  soil.  The  stem  meanwhile  is  adding 
to  lis  length  throughout;  it  erects  itself,  and,  seeking  the 
light,  brings  the  seed  up  out  of  the  ground.  The  mate- 
rials for  this  growth  have  been  supplied  by  the  cotyledons 
or  seed-leaves,  still  in  the  seed:  it  was  the  store  of  nour- 
ishing material  they  held  which  gave  them  their  thickish 
shape,  so  unlike  that  of  ordinary  leaves.  Now,  relieved  of 
a  part  of  this  store  of  food,  which  has  formed  tlie  growth  by 
which  they  have  been  raised  into  the  air 
and  light,  they  appropriate  the  remain- 
der to  their  own  growth.  In  enlarging 
they  open  and  throw  off  the  seed-husk  ; 

they  expand,  diverge  into  a  horizontal 

position,  turn  green,  and  thus  become 

a  pair  of  evident  leaves,  the  first  foliage 

of  a  tiny  plant.   This  seedling,  although 

diminutive  and  most  simple,  possesses 

and  puts   into  use,  all  the  Organs  of 

Vegetation,  namely,  root,  stem,  and 

leaves,  each  in  its  proper  element, — the 

root  in  the  soil,  the  stem  rising  out  of 

it,  the  leaves  in  the  light  and  open  air. 

It  now  draws   in  moisture   and  some  6  5  7 

food-materials  from  the  soil  by  its  root, 

conveys  this  through  the  stem  into  the  leaves,  where  these  materials,  along 

with  other  crude  food  which  these  imbibe  from  the  air,  are  assimilated  into 

vegetable  matter,  i.  e.  into  the  materia!  for  further  growth. 

12.    Further  Growth  soon  proceeds  to  the  formation  of  new  parts,  — 

downward  in  the  production  of  more  root,  or  of  branches  of  the  main  root, 

upward  in  the  development  of  more  stem  and  leaves.     Tiiat  from  which  a 

stem  with  its  leaves  is  continued,  or  a  new  stem  (i.e.  branch)  originated,  is 

a  Bud.     The  most  conspicuous  and  familiar  buds  are  those  of  most  shrubs 

and  trees,  bearing  buds  formed  in  summer  or  autumn,  to  grow  the  following 


Fig.  5.  Early  Fla.K  scrdling  ;  .stem  (caulick'),  root  at  lever  end,  cxpamled  socil- 
leaves  (cotyledons)  at  the  other:  minute  Imd  (plumule)  lietween  these.  6.  Same 
later;  the  bud  developed  into  .second  pair  of  leaves,  with  hardly  any  stem-part  be- 
low them;  then  into  a  tliird  p.air  of  leaves,  raised  on  a  short  .joint  of  stem;  and  a 
fifth  leaf  also  showinc.  7.  Same  still  older,  with  more  leaves  developed,  but  these 
singly  (one  after  another),  and  witli  joints  of  stem  between  them. 


SECTION   2.] 


A  PATTERN   PLANT. 


13 


spring.  But  every  such  poiut  for  uew  growl  li  may  equally  bear  the  name. 
When  there  is  such  a  bud  bctwceu  the  cotyledons  m  the  seed  or  seedling 
it  is  called  the  Plumule.  Tins  is  conspicuous  enough  in  a  bean  (Fig.  29.), 
where  the  young  leaf  of  the  new  growl  h  looks  like  a  little  plume,  whence  the 
Tomae,  plumule.  In  Hax-seed  this  is  very  minute  indeed,  but  is  discernible 
with  a  magnilier,  and  in  the  scedhug  it  shows  itself  dislmetly  (Fig.  5,  6,  7). 

13.  As  it  grows  it  shapes  itself  into  a  second  pair  of  loaves,  which  of 
course  rests  on  a  second  joint  of  stem,  although  in  this  instance  that  remains 
loo  sliort  to  be  well  seen.     Upon  its 

summit  appears  the  third  pair  of 
leaves,  soon  to  be  raised  upon  its 
proper  joint  of  stem;  the  nest  leaf  is 
single,  and  is  carried  up  still  furthci' 
upon  its  supporting  joint  of  stem  ; 
and  so  on.  The  root,  meauwhilc, 
continues  to  grow  underground,  not 
joint  after  joint,  but  continuously, 
from  its  lower  end  ;  and  couimonly 
it  before  long  multiplies  itself  by 
branches,  which  lengthen  by  the 
same  continuous  growth.  But 
stems  are  built  up  by  a  succession 
of  leaf-bearing  growths,  such  as  are 
strongly  marked  in  a  reed  or  corn- 
stalk, and  less  so  in  such  an  herb  as 
ria\.  The  word  "joint"  is  ambigu- 
ous :  it  may  mean  cither  the  portion 
between  successive  leaves,  or  their 
junction,  where  the  leaves  are  at- 
tached. For  precision,  therefore, 
the  place  -where  the  leaf  or  leaves 
are  borne  is  called  a  Node,  and  the 
naked  interval  between  two  nodes, 
an  Tnternode. 

14.  In  this  -way  a  simple  stem 
with  its  garniture  of  leaves  is  de- 
veloped from  the  seed.  But  besides 
this  direct  continuation,  buds  may  form  and  develop  into  lateral  steins,  that 
is,  into  branches,  from  any  node.  The  proper  origin  of  branches  is  from 
the  Axil  of  a  leaf,  i.  e.  the  angle  between  leaf  and  stem  on  the  upper  side  ; 
and  branches  may  again  branch,  so  building  up  the  hei-b,  shrub,  or  tree. 
But  sooner  or  later,  and  without  long  delay  in  an  annual  like  Flax,  instead 
of  this  continuance  of  mere  vegetation,  reproduction  is  prepared  for  by 


Fig.  8.    Upper  part  of  Flax-jilant  in  blo.ssom. 


14 


A   PiVTTEllN   PLANT. 


[SECTION   2. 


15.  Blossoming.  In  Flax  the  flowers  make  tlicir  appearaucc  at  the 
end  of  the  stem  and  branches.  The  growth,  wliich  otherwise  might  con- 
tinue them  farther  or  iudefiuitely,  now  takes  the  form  of  blossom,  and  is 
subservient  to  the  production  of  seed. 

16.  The  Flower  of  Flax  consists,  first,  of  five  small  green  leaves, 
crowded  into  a  circle:  this  is  the  Calyx,  or  flower-cup.  VVlien  its  sepa- 
rate leaves  are  referred  to  they  are  called  Sepals,  a  name  which  distin- 
guislies  them  from  foliage-leaves  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  petals  on  the 
other.  Then  come  five  delicate  and  colored  leaves  (in  the  Flax,  blue),  which 
form  the  Corolla,  and  its  leaves  are  Petals  ;  then  a  circle  of  organs,  in 


9  10 

which  all  likeness  to  leaves  is  lost,  consisting  of  slender  stalks  with  a  knob 
at  summit,  the  Stamens  ;  and  lastly,  in  the  centre,  the  rounded  body, 
which  becomes  a  pod,  surmounted  by  five  slender  or  stalk-like  bodies. 
This,  all  together,  is  the  Pistil.  The  lower  part  of  it,  which  is  to  contain  the 
seeds,  is  the  Ovary  ;  the  slender  organs  surmounting  this  are  Styles  ;  the 
knob  borne  on  the  apex  of  each  style  is  a  Stigma.  Going  back  to  the  sta- 
mens, these  are  of  two  parts,  viz.  the  stalk,  called  Filament,  and  the  body 
it  bears,  the  Anther.  Anthers  are  filled  with  Pollen,  a  powdery  sub- 
stance made  up  of  minute  grains. 

17.  The  pollen  shed  from  the  anthers  when  they  open  falls  upon  or  is 
conveyed  to  the  stigmas ;  then  the  pollen-grains  set  up  a  kind  of  growth  (to 
be  discerned  only  by  aid  of  a  good  microscope),  which  penetrates  the  style  : 
this  growth  takes  the  form  of  a  thread  more  delicate  than  the  finest  spider's 
web,  and  reaches  the  bodies  which  are  to  become  seeds  (Ovules  they  are 
called  until  this  change  occurs)  ;  these,  touched  by  this  influence,  are  in- 
cited to  a  new  growth  witliin,  which  becomes  an  embryo.  So,  as  the  ovary 
ripens  into  the  seed-pod  or  capsule  (Fig.  1,  etc.)  containing  seeds,  each 
seed  enclosing  a  rudimentary  new  plantlet,  the  round  of  this  vegetable 
existence  is  completed. 


Fig.  9.  Flax-flowers  about  natural  .size.  10.  Section  of  a  flower  moderately 
enlarged,  showing  a  part  of  the  petals  and  stamens,  all  five  styles,  and  a  section 
of  ovary  with  two  ovules  or  rudimentary  seeds. 


SECTION   3.] 


SEEDLINGS. 


15 


Section   III.     MORPHOLOGY   OF   SEEDLINGS. 


18.  Having  obtained  a  general  idea  of  the  growth  and  parts  of  a  pha- 
nerogamous plant  from  the  common  Flax  of  the  field,  tlie  seeds  and  seed- 
lings of  other  familiar  plants  may  be  taken  up,  and  their  variations  from  the 
assumed  pattern  examined. 

19.  Germinating  Maples  arc  excellent  to  begin  with,  the  parts  being 
so  much  larger  than  in  Flax  that  a  common  magnifying  glass,  although 
convenient,  is  hardly  necessary.  The  only  disadvantage  is  that  fresh  seeds 
are  not  readily  to  be  had  at  all  seasons. 

20.  The  seeds  of  Sugar  Maple  ripen  at  the  end  of  summer,  and  germi- 
nate in  early  spring.     The  em- 
bryo   fills   the  whole   seed,    in 
which  it  is   nicely  packed ;  and 
the   nature   of  the  parts  is  ob- 
vious even  before  growth  begins. 
There  is  a  stemlet  (caulicle)  and 
a  pair  of  long  and  narrow  seed- 
leaves  (cotyledons),  doubled  up  and  coiled,  green  even  in  the  seed,  and  in 
germination  at  once  unfolding  into  the  first  pair  of  foliage-leaves,  though 
of  shape  quite  unlike  those  that  follow. 

21.  Red  Maple  seeds  are  ripe  and  ready  to  germinate  at  the  beginning  o£ 
summer,  and  are  therefore  more  convenient  for  study.  The  cotyledons  are 
crumpled  in  the  seed,  and  not  easy  to  straighten  out  until  they  unfold  them- 
selves in  germination.  The  story  of  their  development  into  the  seedling  is 
told  by  the  accompanying  Fig.  14-20  ;  and  that  of  Sugar  Maple  is  closely 
similar.  No  plumule  or  bud  appears  in  the  embryo  of  these  two  Maples 
until  the  seed-leaves  have  nearly  attained  their  full  growth  and  are  acting 
as  foliage-leaves,  and  until  a  root  is  formed  below.  There  is  no  great  store 
of  nourishment  in  these  thin  cotyledons ;  so  further  growth  has  to  wait 
until  the  root  and  seed-leaves  have  collected  and  elaborated  sufficient  ma- 
terial for  the  formation  of  the  second  internode  and  its  pair  of  leaves, 
which  lending  their  help  the  third  pair  is  more  promptly  produced,  and 
so  on. 

22.  Some  change  in  the  plan  comes  with  the  Silver  or  Soft  White  Maple. 
(Fig.  21-25).  This  blossoms  in  earliest  spring,  and  it  drops  its  large  and 
ripened  keys  only  a  few  weeks  later.  Its  cotyledons  have  not  at  all  the 
appearance  of  leaves ;  they  are  short  and  broad,  and  (as  there  is  no  room 
to  be  saved  by  folding)  they  are  straight,  except  a  small  fold  at  the  top,  — 
a  vestige  of  the  habit  of  Maples  in  general.    Their  unusual  thickness  is  due 


Fig.  11.  Embryo  of  Sugar  Maple,  cut  throiigli  lengthwise  and  taken  out  of  the 
seed.  12,  13.  Whole  embryo  of  same  just  beginning  to  grow;  a,  the  stemlet  or 
eaui'cle  which  in  13  has  considerably  lengthened. 


16 


SEEDLINGS. 


[section  3. 


to  the  liirgo  store  of  nutritive  matter  tliey  contain,  and  this  prevents  their 
developing  into  actual  loaves.  Correspondingly,  their  caulicle  does  not 
lengthen  to  elevate  them  above  tlie  surface  of  the  soil;  the  growth  below 
the  cotyledons  is  nearly  all  of  root.     It  is  the  little  plumule  or  bud  between 


them  which  makes  the  upward  growth,  and  which,  being  well  fed  by  the 
cotyledons,  rapidly  develops  the  next  pair  of  leaves  and  raises  tliom  upon 
a  long  internode,  and  so  on.  The  cotyledons  all  the  while  remain  below, 
in  the  husk  of  the  fruit  and  seed,  and  perish  when  they  have  yielded  up  the 
store  of  food  which  they  contained. 

23.  So,  even  in  plants  so  much  alike  as  Maples,  there  is  considerable 
difference  in  the  amount  of  food  stored  up  in  the  cotyledons  by  which  the 
growth  is  to  be  made ;  and  there  are  corresponding  differences  in  the  ger- 


FiG.  14.  One  of  the  pair  of  keys  or  winged  fruits  of  Red  Maj^le;  the  seed-bear- 
ing portion  cut  open  to  sliow  tlie  seed.  lo.  Seed  eidarged,  and  divided  to  show 
tiie  cnimpled  embryo  wliich  fills  it.     16.   Embryo  taken  out  an<l  partly  opened. 

17.  Embryo  wliich  has  unfolded  in  early  stage  of  germination  ami  begun  to  grow. 

18.  Seedling  with  next  joint  of  stem  and  leaves  ajiparent;  and  19  with  these  parts 
full-grown,  and  bud  at  apex  for  further  growth.  20.  Seedling  with  another  joint 
of  stem  and  pair  of  leaves. 


SECTION   3.] 


SEEDLINGS. 


17 


niiiiatioii.  The  larger  tlie  supply  to  draw  upon,  tlie  stronger  tlie  growth, 
and  the;  quicker  the  forniatiuu  of  root  below  and  of  stem  and  leaves  above. 
This  deposit  of  food  thickens  the 
cotyledons,  and  renders  them  less 
and  less  leaf-like  iu  proportion  to 
its  amount. 

24.  Examples  of  Embryos 
with  thickened  Cotyledons. 
Iu  the  Pumpkin  and  Squash  (Fig. 
2G,  27),  the  cotyledons  are  well 
supplied  with  nourishing  matter, 
as  their  sweet  taste  demonstrates. 
Still,  they  are  flat  and  not  very 
thick.  In  germination  this  store 
is  promptly  utilized  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  caulicle  to  twenty  or 
thirty  times  its  length  in  the  seed, 
and  to  corresponding  thickness,  in 
the  formation  of  a  cluster  of  roots 
at  its  lower  end,  and  the  early  pro- 
duction of  the  incipient  plumule ; 
also  in  their  own  growth  into  effi- 
cient green  leaves.  The  case  of 
our  common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vul- 
garis. Fig.  28-30)  is  nearly  the 
same,  except  that  the  cotyledons 

are  much  more  gorged  ;  so  that,  altliough  carried  up  into  the  air  and  light 
upon  the  lengthening  caulicle,  and  there  acquiring  a  green  color,  they 
never  expand  into  useful  leaves.  Instead  of  this,  they  nourisli  into  rapid 
growth  the  plumule,  which  is  plainly  visible  in  the  seed,  as  a  pair  of 
incipient  leaves;  and  these  form  the  first  actual  foliage. 

25.  Very  similar  is  the  germination  of  the  Beech  (Fig.  31-33),  except 
that  the  caulicle  lengthens  less,  hardly  raising  the  cotyledons  out  of  the 
ground.  Nothing  would  be  gained  by  elevating  them,  as  they  never  grow 
out  into  efficient  leaves;  but  the  joint  of  stem  belonging  to  the  plumule 
lengthens  -well,  carrying  up  its  pair  of  real  foliage-leaves. 

26.  It  is  nearly  the  same  in  the  Bean  of  the  Old  World  (Vicia  Faba, 
iiere  called  Horse  Bean  and  Windsor  Bean)  :  the  caulicle  lengthens  very 
little,  does  not  undertake  to  elevate  the  heavy  seed,  which  is  left  below  or 

Pig.  21.  Fruit  (one  key)  of  Silver  Maple,  Acer  dasycarpum,  of  natural  size,  the 
seed-hearing  portion  divided  to  show  the  seed.  22.  Embryo  of  the  seed  taken 
out.  23.  Same  opened  out,  to  .show  the  thick  cotyledons  ami  the  little  plumule 
or  bud  between  them.  24.  Germination  of  Silver  Maple,  natural  size;  merely  the 
base  of  the  fruit,  containing  tlie  seed,  is  shown.  25.  Embryo  of  same,  taken  out 
of  tlie  husk  ;  upp*  r  part  of  growing  stem  cut  off,  for  want  of  rnorti. 

2 


18 


SEEDLINGS, 


[SECTION  3. 


upon  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  flat  but  thick  cotyledons  renminiiig  iu  it, 
and  supplying  food  i'or  the  growth  of  the  root  below  and  the  j)lumule 
%bove.    In  its  near  relative,  the  Pea  (Fig.  M,  '6^),  this  use  of  cotyledons 


for  storage  only  is  most  completely  carried  out.  For  they  are  thickened 
to  the  utmost,  even  into  hemispheres ;  the  caulicle  does  not  lengthen  at  all ; 
merely  sends  out  roots  from  the  lower  end,  and  develops  its  strong  plu- 
mule from  the  upper,  the  seed  remaining  unmoved  underground.  That  is, 
in  technical  language,  the  germination  is  hypogeeous. 

27-  There  is  sufficient  nourishment  in  the  cotyledons  of  a  pea  to  make 
a  very  considerable  growth  before  any  actual  foliage  is  required.  So  it 
is  the  stem-portion  of  the  plumule  which  is  at  first  conspicuous  and  strong- 
growing.  Here,  as  seen  iu  Fig.  35,  its  lower  nodes  bear  each  a  useless 
leaf-scale  instead  of  an  efficient  leaf,  and  oidy  the  later  ones  bear  leaves 
fitted  for  foliage. 


Fio.  26.  Embryo  of  Pumpkin-seed,  partly  opened.    27.    Young  seedling  of  same. 

Fig.  28.  Embryo  of  Common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vxdgaris):  caulicle  bent  down 
over  edge  of  cotyledons.  29.  Same  germinating  :  caulicle  well  lengthened  and  root 
beginning;  thick  cotyledons  partly  spreading;  and  plumule  (pair  of  leaves)  growing 
between  them.  30.  Same,  older,  with  plumule  developed  into  ijiternode  and 
pair  of  leaves. 


SECTION   3.] 


SEEDLINGS. 


19 


28.  This  hypogmous  germination  is  exemplified  on  a  larger  scale  by  the 
Oak  (Fig.  36,  37)  and  Horse-chestnut  (Fig.  38,  39) ;  but  in  these  the 
downward  growth  is  wholly  a  stout  tap-root.     It  is  not  the  caulicle;  for 


this  lengt,hens  hardly  any.  Indeed,  tbe  earliest  growth  which  carries 
the  very  short  caulicle  out  of  the  shell  comes  from  the  formation  of  foot- 
stalks to  the  cotyledons ;  above  these  develops  the  strong  plumule,  below 
grows   the  stout  root.     The  growth  is  at  first  entirely,  for  a  long  time 


Fig.  31.  A  Beech-nut,  cut  across.  32.  Beginning  germination  of  the  Beech, 
showing  the  plumule  growing  before  the  cotyledons  have  opened  or  the  root  has 
scarcely  formed.  33.  The  same,  a  little  later,  with  the  plumule-leaves  developing, 
and  elevated  on  a  long  internode. 

Fig.  34.  Emhryo  of  Pea,  i.  e.  a  pea  with  the  coats  removed;  the  short  and 
thick  caulicle  presented  to  view.  35.  Same  in  advanced  germination  :  the  plumule 
has  developed  four  or  five  internodes,  bearing  single  leaves  ;  but  the  first  and  sec- 
ond leaves  are  mere  scales,  the  third  begins  to  serve  as  foliage  ;  the  next  more  so. 


20 


SEEDLINGS. 


[SECTION   3. 


mainly,  at  the  expense  of  the  great  store  of  food  in  the  cotyledons.     These, 
after  serving  their  purpose,  decay  and  fall  away. 

29.    Sueh  thick  cotyledons  never  separate;  indeed,  they  sometimes  grow- 
together  by  some  part  of  their  contiguous  faces ;  so  that  the  germination 


seems  to  proceed  from   a  solid   bulb-like  mass. 
This  is  the  case  in  a  liorse-chestnut. 

30.  Germinating  Embryo  supplied  by  its 
own  Store  of  Nourishment,  i.  e.  the  store  in 
tlie  cotyledons.  This  is  so  in  all  the  illustrations 
thus  far,  essentially  so  even  in  the  Flax.  This 
nourishment  was  supplied  by  the  mother  plant  to 
the  ovule  and  seed,  and  thence  taken  into  the 
embryo  during  its  growth.  Such  embryos,  filling 
the  whole  seed,  are  comparatively  large  and  strong, 
and  vigorous  in  germination  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  their  growth  while  connected  with  tlie  parent  plant. 

31.  Germinating  Embryo  supplied  from  a  Deposit  outside  of  It- 
self.    This  is  as  common  as  the  other  mode;  and  it  occurs  in  all  degrees. 

Fig.  36.  Half  of  an  aconi,  cut  lengthwise,  filled  by  the  verj'  thick  cotyledons, 
the  l)a.se  of  which  encloses  the  minute  caulicle.     37.    Oak-seedlin|r. 

Fig.  38.  Half  of  a  horse-chestnut,  similarlj'  cut  ;  the  caulicle  is  curved  down  on 
the  side  of  one  of  the  thick  cotyledons.  39.  Horse-chestnut  in  pernniiat ion;  foot- 
stalks are  formed  to  the  cotyledous,  j)ushing  out  in  their  lengthening  the  growing 
parts. 


SECTION   3.] 


SEEDLINGS. 


n 


Some  seeds  liave  very  little  of  this  deposit,  but  a  comparatively  large  em- 
bryo, with  its  parts  more  or  less  developed  and  recognizable.  In  others 
this  deposit  forms  the  main  bulk  of  the  seed,  and  the  embryo  is  small  or 
minute,  and  comparatively  rudimentary.  The  following  illustrations  exem- 
plify these  various  grades.  When  an  embryo  in  a  seed  is  thus  surrounded 
by  a  white  substance,  it  was  natural  to  liken  the  latter  to  the  white  of  an 
egg,  and  the  embryo  or  germ  to  the  yolk.  So  the  matter  around  or  by 
the  side  of  the  embryo  was  called  the  Albumen, 
i.  e.  the  white  of  the  seed.  The  analogy  is  not 
very  good ;  and  to  avoid  ambiguity  some  botan- 
ists call  it  the  Endosperm.  As  that  means  in 
English  merely  the  inwards  of  a  seed,  the  new 
name  is  little  better  than  the  old  one  ;  and,  since 
we  do  not  cliange  names  in  botany  except 
when  it  cannot  be  avoided,  this  name  of  albu- 
men is  generally  kept  up.  A  seed  with  such  a 
deposit  is  albuminous,  one  with  none  is  e.ral- 
huminous. 

32.  The  Albumen  forms  the  main  bulk  of 
the  seed  in  wheat,  maize,  rice,  buckwheat,  and 
the  like.  It  is  the  floury  part  of  the  seed. 
Also  of  the  cocoa-nut,  of  coffee  (where  it  is  dense 
and  hard),  etc.  ;  while  in  peas,  beans,  almonds, 
and  in  most  edible  nuts,  the  store  of  food,  al- 
though essentially  the  same  in  nature  and  in 
use,  is  in  the  embryo  itself,  and  therefore  is  not 
counted  as  anything  to  be  separately  named. 
In  both  forms  this  concentrated  food  for  the 
germinating  plant  is  food  also  for  man  and  for 
animals. 

33.  For  an  albuminous  seed  with  a  well-developed  embryo,  the  com- 
mon Morning  Glory  (Ipomoea  purpurea.  Fig.  40-43)  is  a  convenieut  exam- 
ple, being  easy  and  prompt  to  grow,  and  having  all  the  parts  well  apparent. 
The  seeds  (duly  soaked  for  examination)  and  the  germination  should  be 
compared  with  those  of  Sugar  and  Red  Maple  (19-21).  The  only  essen- 
tial difference  is  that  here  tlie  embryo  is  surrounded  by  and  crumpled  up  in 
the  albumen.  This  substance,  which  is  pulpy  or  mucilaginous  in  fresh 
and  young  seeds,  hardens  as  the  seed  ripens,  but  becomes  again  pulpy  in 
germination ;  and,  as  it  liquifies,  the  thin  cotyledons  absorb  it  by  their 


Fig.  40.  Seed  of  Morning  Glory  diviiled,  moderately  magnified ;  shows  a  longi- 
tudinal sectiou  through  the  rentre  of  the  embryo  as  it  lies  crumpled  in  the  albu- 
men. 41.  Embryo  taken  out  whole  and  unfolded;  the  broad  and  very  thin 
cotyledons  notched  at  summit  ;  the  caulicle  below.  42.  Early  state  of  germina- 
tion. 43.  Same,  more  advanced;  caulicle  or  primary  stem,  cotyledons  or  seed- 
leaves,  and  behiw,  the  root,  wi-Jl  develojied. 


SEEDLINGS. 


[SECTION   3. 


whole  surface.  It  supplemcnls  the  nutritive  matter  coutaincd  in  the 
embryo.  Both  together  form  no  large  store,  but  sufficient  for  establishing 
the  seedling,  with  tiny  root,  stem,  and  pair  of  leaves  for  initiating  its 
independent  growth ;  which  in  due  time  proceeds  as  in  Fig.  44,  45. 

34.    Smaller  embryos,  less  developed  in  the  seed,  are  more  dependent 
upon  the  extraneous  supply  of  food.     The  figures  4G-53  illubtratc  four 


45 

grades  iu  this  respect.  Tbe  smallest,  that  of  the  Peony,  is  still  large  enough 
to  be  seen  with  a  hand  magnifying  glass,  and  even  its  cotyledons  may  be 
discerned  by  the  aid  of  a  simple  stage  microscope. 

35.  The  broad  cotyledons  of  Mirabilis,  or  Four-o'clock  (Fig.  52,  53), 
with  the  slender  cauliclc  almost  encircle  and  enclose  the  floury  albumen, 
instead  of  being  enclosed  in  it,  as  in  the  other  illusti'ations.  Evidently 
here  the  germinating  embryo  is  principally  fed  by  one  of  the  leaf-like  coty- 
ledons, the  other  being  out  of  contact  with  the  supply.  In  the  embryo  of 
Abronia  (Fig.  54,  55),  a  near  relative  of  Mirabilis,  there  is  a  singular 
modification ;  one  cotyledon  is  almost  wanting,  being  reduced  to  a  rudi- 
ment, leaving  it  for  the  other  to  do  the  work.  This  leads  to  the  question 
of  the 

36.  Number  of  Cotyledons.  In  all  the  preceding  illustrations,  tlie 
embryo,  however  different  in  shape  and  degree  of  development,  is  evidently 


Fig.  44.  Seedling  of  Morning  Glory  more  advanced  (root  cut  away);  cotyledon.s 
well  developed  into  foliage-leaves:  .succeeding  internode  and  leaf  well  developed, 
and  the  next  forming.  45.  Seedling  more  advanced;  reduced  to  much  below 
aatural  size. 


SECTION   3.] 


SEEDLINGS. 


23 


constructed  upon  one  and  the  same  plan,  namely,  that  of  two  leaves  on  a 
caulicle  or  initial  stem,  —  a  plan  which  is  obvious  even  when  one  cotyledon 
becomes  very  much  smaller  than  the  other,  as  in  the  rare  instance  of  Abro- 
uia  (Fig.  54,  55).     In  other  words,  the  embryos  so  far  examined  are  all 

37.    Dicotyledonous,  that  is,  two-cotyledoued.     Plants  which  are  thus 
similar  iu  the  plan  of  the  embryo  agree  likewise  in  the  general  structure  of 

46  48  60  52 


their  stems,  leaves,  and  blossoms;  and  thus  form  a  class,  named  from  their 
embryo  Dicotyledones,  or  iu  English,  Dicotyledonous  Plants.  So  long 
a  name  being  iucouveiiient,  it  may  be  shortened  into  Dicotyls. 

38.  Polycotyledonous  is  a  name  employed  for  the  less  usual  case  in 
which  there  are  more  than  two  cotyledons.  The  Pine  is  the  most  familiar 
case.  This  occurs  in  all  Pines,  the  number  of  cotyledons  varying  from  three 
to  twelve ;  iu  Fig.  56,  57  they  are  six.  Note  that  they  are  all  on  the  same 
level,  that  is,  belong  to  the  same  node,  so  as  to  form  a  circle  or  whorl  at  the 
summit  of  the  caulicle.  When  there  are  only  three  cotyledons,  they  divide 
the  space  equally,  are  one  third  of  the  circle  apart.  When  only  two  they 
are  180°  apart,  that  is,  are  opposite. 

39.  The  case  of  three  or  more  cotyledons,  which  is  constant  in  Pines 
and  in  some  of  their  relatives  (but  not  in  all  of  them),  is  occasional  among 
Dicotyls.  And  the  polycotyledonous  is  only  a  variation  of  the  dicotyledonous 
type,  —  a  difTereuce  in  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  whorl ;  for  a  pair  is  a 
whorl  reduced  to  two  members.     Some  suppose  that  there  are  really  only 


Fig.  46.  Section  of  a  seed  of  a  Peony,  showing  a  very  small  embryo  iu  the 
albumen,  near  one  end.     47.   This  embryo  detached,  and  more  magnified. 

Fig.  48.  Section  of  a  seed  of  Barl)erry,  showing  the  straight  embryo  in  the 
middle  of  the  albumen.     49.    Its  embryo  detached. 

Fig.  50.  Section  of  a  Potato-seed,  showing  the  embryo  coiled  in  the  albumen. 
51.   Its  embryo  detached. 

Fig.  52.  Section  of  the  seed  of  Mirabilis  or  Four-o'clock,  showing  the  embryo 
coiled  round  the  outside  of  the  albumen.  53.  Embryo  detached;  showing  the  very 
broad  and  leaf-like  cotyledons,  applied  face  to  face,  and  the  pair  incurved. 

Fig.  54.  Embryo  of  Abronia  umbellata;  one  of  the  cotyledons  very  small. 
55.   Same  straightened  out. 


24 


SEEDLINGS. 


[section  3 


58 


two  cotyledons  even  in  a  Piiic-cnibryo,  but  these  divided  or  split  ilp  cou- 
gcuitaiiy  so  as  to  imitate  a  greater  number.  But  as  leaves  are  oftea  in 
whorls  ou  ordinary  stems,  they  may  be  so  at  the  very  beginning. 

40.  Monocotyledonous  (meaning  with 
single  cotyledon)  is  the  name  of  the  one-coty- 
ledoned  sort  of  embryo.  This  goes  along 
with  peculiarities  in  stem,  leaves,  and  flowers  ; 
whicli  all  together  associate  such  plants  into 
a  great  class,  called  Monocotyledonous 
Plants,  or,  for  shortness,  Monocotvls.  It 
means  merely  that  the  leaves  are  alternate 
from  the  very  first. 

41.  In  Iris  (Fig.  58,  59)  the  embryo  in 
the  seed  is  a  small  cylinder  at  one  end  of  the 
mass  of  the  albumen,  with  no  apparent  dis- 
tinction of  parts.  The  end  which  almost 
touches  the  seed-coat  is  caulicle ;  the  other 
end   belongs  to  the  solitary  cotyledon.     In 

germination  the  whole  lengthens  (but  mainly  the 
cotyledon)  only  enough  to  push  the  proximate 
end  fairly  out  of  the  seed  :  from  this  end  the  root 
is  formed;  and  from  a  little  higher  the  plumule 
later  emerges.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that 
the  cotyledon  answers  to  a  minute  leaf  rolled  up, 
and  that  a  chink  through  which  the  plumule 
grows  out  is  a  part  of  the  inrolled  edges.  Tiie 
embryo  of  Indian  Corn  shows  these  parts  on  a 
larger  scale  and  in  a  more  open  state  (Fig.  66- 
68 j.  There,  in  the  seed,  the  cotyledon  remains, 
imbibing  nourishment  from  the  softened  albu- 
men, and  transmitting  it  to  the  growing  root 
below  and  new-forming  leaves  above. 

42.  The  general  plan  is  the  same  in  the  Onion  (Fig.  60-65),  but  with 
a  striking  difference.  The  embryo  is  long,  and  coiled  in  the  albumen  of  the 
seed.  To  ordinary  examination  it  shows  no  distinction  of  parts.  But 
germination  plainly  shows  that  all  except  the  lower  end  of  it  is  cotyledon. 
For  after  it  has  lengthened  into  a  long  thread,  the  chink  from  which  the 


Fig.  56.  Section  of  a  Pine-seetl,  .showing  its  polycotyledonous  emljrj'o  in  the 
centre  of  the  albumen;  moderate! }•  niagnitied.  57.  Seedling  of  same,  showing  the 
freshly  expanded  si.x  cotyledons  in  a  whorl,  and  the  plumule  just  apjiearing. 

Fig.  58.  Section  of  a  seed  of  the  Iris,  or  Flower-de-Luce,  enlarged,  showing  its 
small  embryo  in  the  albumen,  near  the  bottom.  59.  A  germinating  seedling  of  the 
same,  its  plumule  developed  into  the  first  four  leaves  (alternate),  the  first  one 
rudimentary;  the  cotyledon  remain.^  in  the  seed. 

Fig.  60.  Section  of  an  Onion-seed,  showing  tlie  slender  and  eoiled  emliryo  in  the 
albumen  ;  moderately  magnified.     61.    Seed  of  same  in  early  germination. 


SECTION    3.  J  SEEDLINGS.  25 

pliiniule  in  time  emerges  is  seen  at  the  base,  or  near  it ;  so  the  caulicle  is 


62  63  64  65 

extirmcly  short,  and  docs  not  elongate, 
but  sends  out  from  its  base  a  simple 
i"0()t,  and  afterwards  others  in  a  cluster. 
Not  only  does  the  cotyledon  lengthen 
enormously  in  the  seedling,  but  (un- 
like that  of  Iris,  Indian  Corn,  and  all 


Fig.  62.  Germinating  Onion,  more  advanced  ;  tlie  cliink  at  base  of  cotyledon 
opening  for  the  protrusion  of  the  plumule,  consisting  of  a  thread-shaped  leaf. 
63.  Section  of  base  of  Fig.  62,  showing  plumule  enclosed.  64.  Section  of  same 
later;  plumule  emerging.  65.  Later  stage  of  62;  upper  part  cut  off.  66.  A  grain 
of  Indian  Corn,  flatwise,  cut  away  a  little,  so  as  to  show  the  embryo,  lying  on  the 
albumen,  which  makes  the  principal  bulk  of  the  .seed.  67.  A  grain  cut  through  the 
middle  in  the  opposite  direction,  dividing  the  embryo  through  its  thick  cotyle- 
don and  its  plumule,  the  latter  consisting  of  two  leaves,  one  enclosing  the  other. 
68.  The  endiryo,  taken  out  whole:  the  thick  mass  is  the  cotyledon;  the  narrow 
body  partly  enclosed  l)y  it  is  the  ])lumide  ;  the  little  projection  at  its  base  is  the 
very  short  radicle  enclosed  in  the  sheathing  base  of  the  first  leaf  of  the  plumule. 

Fig.  69.  Grain  of  Indian  Corn  in  germination  ;  the  ascending  sjiront  is  the  first 
leaf  of  the  jdnmule,  enclosing  the  younger  leaves  within;  at  its  base  the  primary 
root  has  broken  through.  70.  The  same,  advanced;  the  second  and  third  leaves 
developing,  while  the  .sheathing  first  leaf  does  not  further  develop. 


26 


SEEDLINGS. 


[section  3. 


the  cereal  gi;iiiis)  it  raises  the  comparalively  liglit  seed  iuto  the  air,  the 
tip  still  reuiamiug  in  the  seed  aud  feeding  upon  the  albumen.  When 
this  food  is  exhausted  and  the  seedling  is  well  es- 
tablished in  the  soil,  tlie  upper  end  decays  and  the 
emptied  husk  of  the  seed  falls  away. 

43.  In  Maize  or  In- 
dian Com  (Fig.  66-70), 
the  embryo  is  more  de- 
veloped in  the  seed,  and 
its  parts  can  be  made  out. 
It  lies  against  the  starchy 
albumen,  but  is  not 
enclosed  therein.  The 
larger  part  of  it  is  the 
cotyledon,  thickish,  its 
edges  involute,  and  its 
back  in  contact  witli  the 
albumen ;  partly  enclosed 
by  it  is  the  well-devel- 
oped plumule  or  bud 
■wiiich  is  to  grow.  For 
the  cotyledon  remains  in 
the  seed  to  fulfil  its  office 
of  imbibing  nourishment 
from  the  softened  albu- 
men, which  it  conveys  to 
the  growing  sprout ;  the 
part  of  this  sprout  which  is  visible  is  the  first  leaf  of  the  plumule  rolled  up 
into  a  sheath  and  enclosing  the  rudiments  of  the  succeeding  leaves,  at  the 
base  enclosing  even  the  minute  caulicle.  In  germination  the  first  leaf  of 
the  plumule  develops  only  as  a  sort  of  sheath,  protecting  the  tender  parts 
within;  the  second  and  the  third  form  the  first  foliage.  The  caulicle  never 
lengthens:  the  first  root,  which  is  formed  at  its  lower  end,  or  from  any 
part  of  it,  has  to  break  through  the  enclosing  sheath  ;  and  succeeding  roots 
soon  spring  from  all  or  any  of  the  nodes  of  the  plumule. 

44.  Simple-stemmed  Plants  are  thus  built  up,  by  the  continuous  pro- 
duction of  one  leaf-bearing  portion  of  stem  from  the  summit  of  the  preced- 
ing one,  beginning  witii  the  initial  stem  (or  caulicle)  in  the  embryo.  Some 
Uicotyls  and  many  Monoootyls  develop  only  in  this  single  line  of  growth  (as 
to  parts  above  ground)  until  the  flowering  state  is  approached.  For  some 
exani[)les,  see  Cycas  (Fig.  71,  front,  at  the  left)  ;  a  tall  Yucca  or  Spanish 
Bayonet,  and  two  Cocoa-nut  Palms  behind ;  at  the  right,  a  group  of  Sugar- 
canes,  and  a  Banana  behind. 


Fig.  71.   Simple-stemmed  vegetation. 


SECTION   4.  J 


BUDS. 


27 


Section  IV.     GROWTH   FROM   BUDS  :   BRANCHING. 


45.  Most  plants  increase  the  amount  of  their  vegetation  by  branching, 
that  is,  by  producing  lateral  shoots. 

46.  Roots  branch  from  any  part  and  usually  without  definite  order. 
Stems  normally  give  rise  to  branches  only  at  definite  points,  namely,  at  the 
nodes,  and  there  only  from  the  axils  of  leaves. 

47.  Buds  (Pig.  72,  73).  Every  incipient  shoot  is  a  Bud  (12).  A 
stem  continues  its  growth  by  its  terminal  bud;  it  branches  by  tiie  forma- 
tion and  development  of  lateral  buds.  As  normal  lateral  buds  occupy  tlie 
axils  of  leaves,  they  are  called  axillary  buds.  As  leaves  are  symmetrically 
arranged  on  the  stem,  the  buds  in  their  axils  and  the  branches  into  which 
axillary  buds  grow  partake  of  this  symmetry. 
The  most  conspicuous  buds  are  the  scaly  winter- 
buds  of  most  shrubs  and  trees  of  temperate  and 
cold  climates ;  but  the  name  belongs  as  well  to 
the  forming  shoot  or  branch  of  any  herb. 

48.  The  Terminal  Bud,  in  tlie  most  general 
sense,  may  be  said  to  exist  in  the  embryo,  —  as 
cotyledons,  or  the  cotyledons  and  plumule,  —  and 
to  crown  each  successive  growth  of  the  simple 
stem  so  long  as  the  summit  is  capable  of  growth. 
The  whole  ascending  growth  of  the  Palm,  Cy- 
cas,  and  the  like  (such  as  in  Fig.  71)  is  from 
a  terminal  bud.  Branches,  being  repetitions  of 
the  main  stem  and  growing  in  the  same  way, 
are  also  lengthened  by  terminal  buds.  Those  of 
Horse-chestnut,  Hickory,  Maples,  and  such  trees, 
being  the  resting  buds  of  winter,  are  conspicu- 
ous by  their  protective  covering  of  scales. 
These  bud-scales,  as  will  hereafter  be  shown, 
are  themselves  a  kind  of  leaves. 

49.  Axillary  Buds  were  formed  on  these 
annual  shoots  early  in  the  summer.  Occasion- 
ally they  grow  the  same  season  into  branches  ;  at  least,  some  of  them  are 
pretty  sure  to  do  so  whenever  the  growing  terminal  bud  at  the  end  of  the 
shoot  is  injured  or  destroyed.  Otherwise  tliey  may  lie  dormant  until  the 
following  spring.  In  many  trees  or  shrubs  these  axillary  buds  do  not 
show  themselves  until  spring ;  but  if  searched  for,  they  may  be  detected, 
though  of  small  size,  hidden  under  the  bark.     Sometimes,  although  early 


Fig.  72.   Shoot  of  Horse-chestnut,  of  one  y.ear's  growth,  taken  in  autumn  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen ;  showing  the  large  terminal  hud  and  smaller  axillary  buds. 
Fig.  73.    Similar  shoot  of  Shagbark  Hickory,  Carya  alba. 


28 


BUDS. 


[section  4. 


formed,  they  are  concealed  all  siimincr  long  under  the  base  of  tlie  leaf-stalk, 
wiiich  is  tlieii  hollowed  out  iuto  a  sort  of  inverted  cup,  like  a  caiidle- 
extinguislier,  to  cover  tliein  ;  as  ill  the  Locust,  the  Yellow-wood,  or  more 
strikiugly  iii  the  Button-wood  or  Plaue-tree  (Fig.  7^)- 


50.  The  lea/scars,  so  conspicuous  in  Fig.  72,  73,  under  each  axillary 
bud,  mark  the  place  where  the  stalk  of  the  subtending  leaf  was  attached 
until  it  fell  in  autumn 

51.  Scaly  Buds,  which  are  well  represented  in  Fig.  72,  73,  commonly 
belong  to  trees  and  shrubs  of  countries  in  which  growth  is  susjiended  dur- 
hig  winter.  The  scaly  coverings  protect  the  tender  young  parts  beneath, 
not  so  much  by  keeping  out  the  cold,  which  of  course  would  penetrate  the 
bud  in  time,  as  by  shielding  the  interior  from  the  effects  of  sudden  changes. 
There  are  all  gradations  between  these  and 

52.  Naked  Buds,  in  which  these  scales  are  inconspicuous  or  wanting, 
as  in  most  herbs,  at  least  above  ground,  and  most  tropical  trees  and  shrubs. 
But  nearly  related  plants  of  the  same  climate  may  differ  widely  in  this  re- 
spect. Rhododendrons  have  strong  and  scaly  winter-buds ;  while  in  Kalmia 
they  are  naked.  One  species  of  Viburnum,  the  Hobble-bush,  has  com- 
pletely naked  buds,  what  would  be  a  pair  of  scales  developing  into  the  first 
leaves  in  spring;  while  another  (the  Snowball)  has  conspicuous  scaly  buds. 

53.  Vigor  of  Vegetation  from  strong  buds.  Large  and  strong  buds, 
like  those  of  the  Horse-chestnut,  Hickory,  and  the  like,  contain  several 
leaves,  or  pairs  of  leaves,  ready  formed,  folded  and  packed  away  in  small 
compass,  just  as  the  seed-leaves  of  a  strong  embryo  are  packed  away  in  the 
seed  :  they  may  even  contain  all  the  blossoms  of  the  ensuing  season,  plainly 
visible  as  small  buds.  And  the  stems  upon  wiiieh  these  buds  rest  are  filled 
with  abundant  nourishment,  wliicli  was  deposited  the  summer  before  in  the 


Fig.  74.    An  axillary  Ijiul,  concealed  under  the  hollowed  base  of  Llie  leafstalk, 
in  Buttouwood  or  Plaue-tree. 


SF/'TION   4.]  BUDS.  29 

wood  or  ill  the  bark.  Under  tlie  surface  of  the  soil,  or  ou  it  covered  with 
the  fallen  leaves  of  autumn,  similar  stroug  buds  of  our  perennial  iierbs  may 
be  found  ;  while  beneath  are  thick  roots,  rootstocks,  or  tubers,  charged 
with  a  great  store  of  nourishment  for  their  use.  This  explains  how  it  is  that 
vegetation  from  such  buds  shoots  forth  ho  vigorously  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  and  clothes  the  baru  and  lately  frozen  surf;ice  of  the  soil,  as  well  as 
the  naked  boughs  of  trees,  very  promptly  with  a  covering  of  fresh  green, 
and  often  with  brilliant  blossoms.  Everytliiug  was  prepared,  and  even 
formed,  beforehaud:  the  short  joints  of  stem  in  the  hud  have  only  to 
lengthen,  and  to  separate  the  loaves  from  each  other  so  tliat  tlicy  may  un- 
fold and  grow.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  vegetation  of  the  season  comes 
directly  from  the  seed,  and  none  of  the  earliest  vernal  vcgetatinu.  Tliis  is 
all  from  buds  which  have  lived  through  llic  winter. 

54!.  The  Arrangement  of  Branches,  being  that  of  axillary  buds,  answers 
to  that  of  the  leaves.  Now  leaves  principally  arc  cither  opposite  or  alternate. 
Leaves  are  opposite  when  there  are  two  from  the  same  joint  of  stem,  as  in 
Maples  (Fig.  20),  the  two  being  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  ;  and  so  the 
axillary  buds  and  branches  arc  opposite,  as  in  Fig.  75.  Leaves  are  altcr- 
mte  when  there  is  only  cue  from  each  joint  of  stem,  as  in  the  Oak,  Lime- 
tree,  Poplar,  Button-wood  (Fig.  7^),  Morning-Glory  (Fig.  45,  —  not 
counting  the  seed-leaves,  which  of  course  arc  opposite,  there  being  a  pair 
of  them)  ;  also  in  Lidian  Corn  (Fig.  70),  and  L'is  (Fig.  59).  Consequently 
the  axillary  buds  are  also  alternate,  as  in  Hickory  (Fig.  73)  ;  and  the 
brandies  they  form  alternate,  —  making  a  different  kind  of  spray  from  the 
other  mode,  one  branch  shooting  on  one  side  of  the  stem  and  the  next 
on  some  other.  For  in  the  alternate  arrangement  no  leaf  is  on  the  same 
side  of  the  stem  as  the  one  next  above  or  next  below  it. 

55.  But  the  symmetry  of  branches  (unlike  that  of  the  leaves)  is  rarely 
complete.     This  is  due  to  several  cause.*,  and  most  commonly  to  the 

56.  Non-development  of  buds.  It  never  happens  that  all  the  buds 
grow.  If  they  did,  there  might  be  as  many  branches  in  any  year  as  there 
were  leaves  the  year  before.  And  of  those  which  do  l)egin  to  grow,  a 
large  portion  perish,  sooner  or  later,  for  want  of  nourishment,  or  for  want 
of  light,  or  because  those  which  first  begin  to  grow  have  an  advantage, 
which  they  are  apt  to  keep,  taking  to  themselves  the  nourishment  of  the 
stem,  and  starvincc  the  weaker  buds.  \\\  the  Horse-chestnut  (Fig.  72), 
Hickory  (Fig.  73)  Mnguolia,  and  most  other  trees  with  large  seuly  buds, 
the  terminal  bud  is  the  strongest,  and  has  the  advantage  ingrowth;  and 
next  in  strength  are  the  upper  axillary  buds:  while  the  former  continues 
the  shoot  of  the  last  year,  some  of  the  latter  give  rise  to  branches,  and 
the  rest  fail  to  grow.  Li  the  Lilac  also  (Fig.  75),  the  uppermost  axillary 
buds  are  stronger  than  the  lower ;  but  the  terminal  bud  rarely  appears  at 
all ;  in  its  place  the  uppermost  pair  of  axillary  buds  grow,  and  so  each 
stem  branches  every  year  into  two,  —  making  a  repeatedly  two-forked 
ramification,  as  in  Fig.  76. 


30 


BUDS. 


[section  4 


57.  Latent  Buds.  Axilhrv  l)uds  lliat  do  not  grow  at  the  proper  season, 
and  espceiully  tliosc  which  make  no  appearaiiee  externally,  may  loug  remain 
latent,  and  at  length  upon  a  favorable  occasion  start  into  giowth,  so  i'orm- 

ing  bi'auches  apparently  out  of  [)lace 
ab  tliey  are  out  of  time.  The  new 
shoots  seen  springing  directly  out 
of  large  stems  may  sometimes  orig- 
inate from  such  latent  buds,  which 
have  preserved  their  life  for  years. 
But  commonly  these  arise  from 

58.  Adventitious  Buds.  These 
are  butls  which  certain  shrubs  and 
trees  produce  anywhere  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  wood,  especially  where 
it  has  been  injured.  They  give  rise 
to  the  slender  twigs  which  often 
feather  the  .sides  of  great  branches 
of  our  American  Elms.  They  some- 
times form  on  the  root,  which  natu- 
rally is  destitute  of  buds ;  they  are 
even  found  upon  some  leaves  ;  and 
they  are  sure  to  appear  on  the 
trunks  and  roots  of  Willows,  Pop- 
lars, and  Chestnuts,  when  these  are 
wounded  or  mutilated.  Indeed 
Osier- Willows  &re  pollarded,  or  cut 
off,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  culti- 
vator, for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing a  crop  of  slender  adventitious  twigs,  suitable  for  basket-work.  Such 
branches,  being  altogether  irregular,  of  course  interfere  with  the  natural 
symmetry  of  the  tree.  Another  cause  of 
irregularity,  in  certain  trees  and  shrubs, 
is  the  formation  of  wiiat  are  called 

59.  Accessory  or  Supernumerary 
Buds.  There  are  cases  where  two,  three, 
or  more  buds  spring  from  the  axil  of  a 
leaf,  instead  of  the  single  one  which  is  or- 
dinarily found  there.  Sometimes  they  are 
placed  one  over  the  other,  as  in  the  Aris- 
tolochia  or  Pipe- Vine,  and  in  the  Tartarean  Honeysuckle  (Fig.  17)  ;  also 
in  the  Houey-Locust,  and  in  the  Walnut  and  Butternut  (Fig.  78),  where 

Fig.  75.  Shoot  of  Lilac,  with  winter  buds  ;  the  two  uppermost  axillary  ones 
strong;  the  terminal  not  flevelopeil.  76.  Forking  ramification  of  Lilac;  reduced 
in  size. 

FlQ.  77.   Tartarean  Honeysuckle,  with  three  accessory  buds  in  each  axiL 


SECTION  4.  J 


BUDS. 


31 


the  upper  supenuimerary  bud  is  a  good  Wtay  out  of  the  axil  and  above  tin; 

others.     Aud  this  is  here  stronger    tlian   the  otliers,  and   grows  into   a 

branch  which  is  considerably  out  of  tlie  axil,  while  the  lower  aud  smaller 

ones   commonly  do  not  grow  at  all.     In  other  cases 

three  buds  stand  side  by  side  in  the  axil,  as  in  the 

Hawthorn,  and  the  Red  Maple  (Fig.  79.)     If  these 

were  all  to  grow  into  branches,  they  would  stifle  each 

other.     But  some  of  them  are  commonly  flower-buds  : 

in  the  Red  Maple,  only  the  middle  one  is  a  leaf-bud, 

and  it  does  not  grow  until  after  those  on  each  side  of 

it  have  expanded  the  blossoms  they  contain. 

60.  Sorts  of  Buds.  It  may  be  useful  to  enumerate 
the  kinds  of  buds  which  have  been  described  or  men- 
tioned.    They  are 

Terminal,  when  they  occupy  the  summit  of  (or  ter- 
minate) a  stem. 

Lateral,  when  they  are  borne  on  the  side  of  a  stem ; 
of  which  the  regular  kind  is  the 

Axillary,  situated  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf.     These  are 

Accessory  or  Supernumerary,  when  they  are  in 
addition  to  the  normal  solitary  bud ;  and  these  are 
Collateral,  when  side  by  side ;  Superposed,  when  one 
above  another; 

Extra-axillary,  when  they  appear  above  the  axil,  as 
some  do  when  superposed,  and  as  occasionally  is  the 
case  when  single. 

Naked  buds  ;  those  which  have  no  protecting  scales. 

Scaly  buds;  those  which  have  protecting  scales, 
■which  are  altered  leaves  or  bases  of  leaves. 

Leaf-buds,  contain  or  give  rise  to  leaves,  and  develop  into  a  leafy  shoot. 

Flower-buds,  contain  or  consist  of  blossoms,  and  no  leaves. 

Mixed  buds,  contain  both  leaves  and  blossoms. 

61.  Definite  annual  Growth  from  winter  buds  is  marked  in  most  of 
the  shoots  from  strong  buds,  such  as  those  of  the  Horse-chestnut  and 
Hickory  (Fig.  72,  73).  Such  a  bud  generally  contains,  already  formed  in 
miniature,  all  or  a  great  part  of  the  leaves  and  joints  of  stem  it  is  to  pro- 
duce, makes  its  whole  growth  in  length  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  or 
sometimes  even  in  a  few  days,  aud  then  forms  and  ripens  its  buds  for  the 
next  year's  similar  growth. 

62.  Indefinite  annual  Growth,  on  the  other  hand,  is  well  marked  in 
such  trees  or  shrubs  as  the  Honey-Locust,  Sumac,  and  in  sterile  shoots  of 

Fig.  78.   Butternut  branch,  with  accessory  buds,  the  uppermost  above  the  axil. 

Fig.  79.  Red-Maple  branch,  vvitli  accessory  buds  placed  side  by  side.  The  an- 
nular lines  toward  the  base  in  this  and  in  Fig.  72  are  scars  of  the  bud-scales,  and 
indicate  the  place  of  the  winter-bud  of  the  preceding  year. 


32 


BUDS. 


[section  4. 


the  "Rose,  Blaclcborry,  and  E;ispberry.  Tliat  is,  these  shoots  are  apt  to 
grow  all  samnier  long,  until  stopped  by  the  frosts  of  autumn  or  some  other 
cause.  Consequently  they  form  and  ripen  no  terminal  bud  protected  by 
scales,  and  the  upper  axillary  buds  are  produced  so  late  in  the  season  that 
they  have  no  time  to  mature,  nor  has  their  wood  time  to  solidify  and  ripen. 
Such  stems  therefore  commonly  die  back  from  the  top  in  winter,  or  at 
least  all  their  upper  buds  arc  small  and  feeble ;  so  the  growth  of  the  suc- 
ceeding year  takes  place  mainly  from  the  lower  axillary  buds,  which  are 
more  mature. 

63.  Deliquescent  and  Excurrent  Growth.  In  the  former  case,  and 
wherever  axillary  buds  take  the  lead,  there  is,  of  course,  no  single  main 
stem,  contiuued  year  after  year  in  a  direct  line,  but  the  trunk  is  soon  lost 


in  the  branches.  Trees  so  formed  commonly  have  rounded  or  spreading 
tops.  Of  such  trees  with  deliquescent  stems,  —  that  is,  witli  the  trunk 
dissolved,  as  it  were,  into  the  successively  divided  branches,  —  the  common 
American  Elm  (Fig.  80)  is  a  good  illustration. 

G4.  On  the  other  hand,  the  main  stem  of  Firs  and  Spruces,  unless  de- 
stroyed by  some  injury,  is  carried  on  in  a  direct  line  throughout  the  whole 
growth  of  the  tree,  by  the  development  year  after  year  of  a  terminal  bud  : 
this  forms  a  single,  uninterrupted  shaft,  —  an  excurrent  trunk,  which  can- 
not be  confounded  with  the  branches  that  proceed  from  it.  Of  such  spiry 
or  spire-shaped  trees,  the  Eirs  or  Spruces  are  cliaracteristic  and  fainiUar 
examples      There  are  all  gradations  between  the  two  modes. 

Fig.  80.    An  American  Elnj,  with  Spruce-trees,  and  on  tlie  left  Arbor  Vitae. 


SECTION   5.] 


ROOTS. 


33 


Section    V.     ROOTS. 


65.  It  is  a  property  of  stems  to  produce  roots.  Stems  do  not  spring 
from  roots  in  ordinary  cases,  as  is  generally  tliought,  but  roots  from  stems. 
Wheu  perennial  herbs  arise  from  the  ground,  as  they  do  at  spring-time, 
they  vise  from  subterranean  stems. 

60.  The  Primary  Root  is  a  downward  growth  from  the  root-end  of 
the  caulicle,  that  is,  of  the  initial  stem  of  the  embryo  (Fig.  5-7,  81).  If 
it  goes  on  to  grow  it  makes  a  main  or  tap-root,  as  in  Eig.  37,  etc.  Some 
plants  keep  this  main  root  throughout 
their  whole  life,  and  send  off  only 
small  side  branches  ;  as  in  the  Carrot 
and  Radish  :  and  in  various  trees,  like 
the  Oak,  it  takes  the  lead  of  the 
side-branclies  for  several  years,  unless 
accidentally  injured,  as  a  strong  tap- 
root. But  commonly  the  main  root 
divides  oif  very  soon,  and  is  lost  in  the 
branches.  Multiple  primary  roots  now 
and  then  occur,  as  in  the  seedling  of 
Pumpkin  (Fig.  27),  where  a  cluster 
is  formed  even  at  the  first,  from  tlie 
root-end  of  the  caulicle. 

67.  Secondary  Roots  are  those 
which  arise  from  other  parts  of  tlie 
stem.  Any  part  of  the  stem  may 
produce  tliem,  but  they  most  readily  come  from  the  nodes, 
rule  they  naturally  spring,  or  may  be  made  to  spring,  from  almost  any 
young  stem,  when  placed  in  favorable  circumstances, — that  is,  when 
placed  in  the  soil,  or  otherwise  sup|)lied  with  moisture  and  screened  from 
the  light.  For  the  special  tendency  of  the  root  is  to  avoid  the  light,  seek 
moisture,  and  therefore  to  bury  itself  in  the  soil.  Propagation  by  dicision, 
which  is  so  common  and  so  very  important  in  cultivation,  depends  upon 
the  proclivity  of  stems  to  strike  root.  Stems  or  branches  which  remain 
underground  give  out  roots  as  freely  as  roots  themselves  give  off  branches. 
Stems  which  creep  on  the  ground  most  commonly  root  at  the  joints;  so 
will  most  branches  when  bent  to  the  ground,  as  in  propagation  by  layer- 
iiuf ;  and  propagation  by  cuttings  equally  depends  upon  the  tendency  of  the 
cut  end  of  a  shoot  to  produce  roots.  Thus,  a  piece  of  a  plant  which  has 
stem  and  leaves,  either  developed  or  in  the  bud,  may  be  made  to  produce 
roots,,  and  so  become  an  independent  plant. 

Fig.  81.  Seedling  Maple,  of  the  natural  size ;  the  root  well  supplied  with  root-hajjs. 
here  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  82.  Lower  eml  of  this  root,niaglu- 
tied,  the  root  seen  just  as  root-hairs  are  beginning  to  form  a  little  behind  the  tip. 

3 


As  a  general 


34 


ROOTS. 


[section  5. 


68.  Contrast  between  Stem  and  Root.  Stems  are  aso  ;udiiig  axes ; 
roots  are  descending  axes.  Stems  grow  by  the  successive  development  of 
internodes  (13),  one  after  anotlier,  each  leaf-bearing 
at  its  summit  (or  node) ;  so  that  it  is  of  the  essen- 
tial nature  of  a  stem  to  bear  leaves.  Roots  bear  uo 
leaves,  are  not  distinguishable  into  nodes  aud  iuter- 
nodes,  but  grow  on  continuously  from  ihe  lower 
end.  They  commonly  branch  freely,  but  not  from 
any  fixed  points  nor  in  definite  order. 

69.  Although  roots 
generally  do  not  give 
rise  to  stems,  and  there- 
fore do  not  propagate 
the  plant,  exceptions  are 
not  imcommon.  Por  as 
stems  may  produce  ad- 
ventitious buds,  so  also 
may  roots.  The  roots  of 
the  Sweet  Potato  among 
herbs,  and  of  the  Osage 
Orange  among  trees 
freely  produce  adventi- 
tious buds,  developing 
into  leafy  shoots ;  and 
so  these  plants  are 
propagated  by  root-cut- 
tings. But  most  growths 
of  subterranean  origin 
which  pass  for  roots  are  forms  of  stems,  the  common  Potato  for  example. 

70.  Roots  of  ordinary  kinds  and  uses  may  be  roughly  classed  mio  fibrous 
&x^^fieshy. 

71.  Fibrous  Roots,  such  as  those  of  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  70),  of  most 
annuals,  and  of  many  perennials,  serve  only  for  absorption  :  these  are 
slender  or  thread-like.  Fine  roots  of  this  kind,  and  the  fine  branches  which 
most  roots  send  out  are  called  Rootlets. 

72.  The  whole  surface  of  a  root  absorbs  moisture  from  the  soil  while  fresh 
and  new  ;  and  the  newer  roots  aud  rootlets  are,  the  more  freely  do  they  im- 
bibe. Accordingly,  as  long  as  the  plant  grows  above  ground,  and  expands 
fresh  foliage,  from  which  moisture  largely  escapes  into  the  air,  so  long  it 
continues  to  extend  and  multiply  its  roots  in  the  soil  beneath,  renewing  and 
increasing  the  fresh  surface  for  absorbing  moisture,  in  proportion  to  the 
demand  from  above.  And  when  growth  ceases  above  ground,  and  the 
leaves  die  and  fall,  or  no  longer  act,  then  the  roots  generally  stop  growing. 


FiQ.  83-85.    Forms  of  tap-root 


SECTION  5.) 


ROOTS. 


35 


aud  their  soft  and  tender  tips  harden.  From  this  period,  therefore,  until 
growth  begins  anew  the  next  spring,  is  the  best  time  for  transplanting ; 
especially  for  trees  aud  shrubs. 

73.  The  absorbing  surface  of  young  roots  is  much  increased  by  the  for- 
mation, near  their  tips,  of  Root-hairs  (Fig.  81,  82),  which  are  delicate 


tubular  outgrowths  from  the  surface,  through  the  delicate  walls  of  wWch 
moisture  is  promptly  imbibed. 

74.  Fleshy  Roots  are  those  in  which  the  root  becomes  a  storehouse  of 
nourishment.  Typical  roots  of  this  kind  are  tliose  of  such  biennials  as  the 
turnip  and  carrot ;  in  which  the  food  created  in  the  first  season's  vege- 
tation is  accumulated,  to  be  expended  the  next  season  in  a  vigorous  growth 
and  a  rapid  development  of  flowers,  fruit,  and  seed.  By  the  time  the  seed 
is  matured  the  exhausted  root  dies,  aud  with  it  the  whole  plant. 

75.  Fleshy  roots  may  be  single  or  multiple.  The  single  root  of  the 
commoner  biennials  is  the  primary  root,  or  tap-root,  which  begins  to 
thicken  in  the  seedhng.     Names  are  given  to  its  shapes,  such  as 

Conical,  when  it  thickens  most  at  the  crown,  or  where  it  joins  the  stem, 
and  tapers  regularly  downwards  to  a  point,  as  in  the  Parsnip  and  Carrot 
(Fig.  84); 

Turnip-shaped  or  napiform,  when  greatly  thickened  above,  but  abruptly 
becoming  slender  below ;  as  the  Turnip  (Fig.  83)  ;  and 


Fig.  86.  Sweet-Potato  plant  forming  thickened  roots.  Some  in  tlie  middle  are 
just  beginning  to  thicken,"  one  at  the  left  has  grown  more;  one  at  the  right  is  still 
larger. 

FiG.  87.    Fascicled  fusiform  roots  of  a  Dahlia :  a,  a,  bud.s  on  base  of  stem. 


36 


ROOTS. 


[section 


Spindle ->ihaped,  or  Fusiform,  wlicu  thickest  iu  the  iniddlc  aud  tapering  to 
both  ends;  as  the  cuminou  Kadish  (Fig.  85). 

70.  These  cxaiiij)les  are  uf  primary  roots.  It  will  be  seen  that  turnips, 
carrots,  and  tue  like,  are  not  pure  root  throughout  :  for  the  caulicle,  from 
tlie  lower  end  of  which  the  root  grew,  partakes  or  me  thickening,  jjcrhaps 
also  some  joints  of  stem  above :  so  the  bud-bearing  aud  growing  top  is 
stem. 

77.  A  fine  example  of  secondaiy  roots  (67),  some  of  which  remain  fibrous 
for  absorption,  while  a  few  thicken  aud  store  up  food  for  the  next  season's 
growth,  is  furnished  by  the  Sweet  Potato  (Fig.  86).  As  stated  above, 
these  are  used  for  ])ropagatiou  by  cuttings;  for  any  part  will  produce  ad- 
ventitious buds  aud  shoots.  The  Dahlia  produces  fascicled  (i.  e.  clustered) 
fusiform  roots  of  the  same  kind,  at  the  base  of  the  stem  (Fig.  87)  :  but 
these,  like  most  roots,  do  not  produce  adventitious  buds.  The  buds  by 
which  Dahlias  are  propagated  beloug  to  the  surviving  base  of  the  stem 
above. 

78.  Anomalous  Roots,  as  they  may  be  called,  are  those  which  subserve 
other  uses  tliau  absorption,  food-storing,  and  fixing  the  plant  to  the  soil. 

Aerial  Roots,  i.  e.  those  that  strike  from  stems  in  tlie  open  air,  are, 
common  in  moist  and  wann  .^ 

climates,  as  in  the  Mangrove 
which  reaches  tlie  coast  of 
Florida,  t  he  Banyan,  and,  less 
strikingly,  in  some  lierbace- 
ous  plants,  such  as  Sugar 
Cane,  and  even  in  Indian 
Corn.  Such  roots  reach  the 
ground  at  leugtli,  or  tend  to 
do  so. 

Aerial  Rootlets  are  abun- 
dantly produced  by  many 
climbing  plants,  such  as  the 
Ivy,  Poison  Ivy,  Trumpet 
Creeper,  etc.,  springing  from 
the  side  of  stems,  which  they 
fasten  to  trunks  of  trees, 
walls,  or  other  supports. 
These  are  used  by  the  plant 
for  climbing. 

79.  Epiphytes,  or  Air- 
Plants  (Fig.  88),  are  called  by  the  former  name  because  comraonly  growicg 


Fig.  88.  Epiphytes  of  Florida  and  Gonrjiia.  viz.,  Epidendrum  conopsenm,  a 
.small  Orchid,  and  Tillandsia  nsncoides,  the  .so-called  Long  Mo.ss  or  Black  Moss, 
which  is  no  moss,  but  a  flowering  plant,  also  T.  recurvata  ;  ou  abouj,h  of  Live  Oak. 


SECTION   5. J 


HOOTS. 


37 


upon  tlie  trunks  or  limbs  of  other  pLuits;  by  the  latter  because,  having  no 
couucctioii  with  the  soil,  they  must  derive  liieir  sustenance  from  the  air 
only.  They  have  aerial  roots,  wiiicli  do  not  reaeli  the  ground,  but  are  used 
to  fix  the  plant  to  the  surface  upon  wiiich  the  plant  grows :  they  also  talic 
a  part  in  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air. 

80.  Parasitic  Plants,  of  wliieh  there  are  various  kinds,  strike  their 
roots,  or  what  answer  to  roots,  into  the  tissue  of  foster  plants,  or  form  at- 
tachments with  their  surface,  so  as  to  prey  upon  their  juices.  Of  this  sort 
is  the  Mistletoe,  the  seed  of  which  germinates  on  the  bough  where  it 
falls  or  is  left  by  birds ;  and  the  forming  root  penetrates  tiie  bark  and  en- 
grafts itself  into  the  wood,  to  which  it  becomes  united  as  firmly  as  ?iuatural 
branch  to  its  parent  stem ;  and  indeed  the  parasite  lives  just  as  if  it  were 
a  branch  of  the  tree  it  grows  and  feeds  on.  A  most  common  parasitic  herb 
is  the  Dodder ;  which  abounds  in  low  grounds  in  summer,  and  coils  its 
long  and  slender,  leafless,  yellowish  stems  —  resembUug  tangled  threads  of 
yarn  —  round  and  round  the  stalks  of  other  plants ;  wherever  they  touch 
piercing  the  bark  with  minute  and  very  short  rootlets  in  the  form  of 
suckers,  which  draw  out  the  nourishing  juices  of  the  plants  laid  hold  of. 
Other  parasitic  plants,  like  the  Beech-drops  and  Pine-sap,  fasten  their  roots 
under  ground  upon  the  roots  of  neighboring  plants,  and  rob  them  of  their 
juices. 

81.  Some  plants  are  partly  parasitic ;  while  most  of  their  roots  act  in 
the  ordiuary  way,  others  make  suckers  at  their  tips  which  grow  fast  to  the 


roots  of  other  plants  and  rob  them  of  nourishment.     Some  of  our  species  of 
Gerardia  do  this  (Fig.  89). 

82.  There  arc  phanerogamous  plants,  like  Monotropa  or  Indian  Pipe, 
the  roots  of  which  feed  mainly  on  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 
These  are  Saprophytes,  and  they  imitate  Mushrooms  and  other  Fungi  in 
their  mode  of  life. 

83.  Duration  of  Roots,  etc.  Roots  are  said  to  be  either  annual,  bien- 
nial, or  'perennial.  As  respects  the  first  and  second,  1  hese  terms  may  be 
applied  either  to  the  root  or  to  the  plant. 

84.  Annuals,  as  the  name  denotes,  live  for  only  one  year,  generally  for 

Fig.  89.  Roots  of  Yellow  Gerardia,  some  attached  to  and  feeding  on  the  root  of 
a  Blueberry-bush. 


392415 


38  STEMS.  [SECTION   G. 

only  a  part  of  the  year.  Tliey  are  of  course  herbs ;  they  spring  from  the 
seed,  blossom,  mature  their  fruit  and  seed,  and  then  die,  root  and  all.  An- 
nuals of  our  temperate  climates  with  severe  winters  start  from  the  seed  in 
spring,  and  perish  at  or  before  autumn.  Where  the  winter  is  a  moist  and 
growing  season  and  the  summer  is  dry,  winter  annuals  prevail;  their  seeds 
germinate  under  autumn  or  winter  rains,  grow  more  or  less  during  winter, 
blossom,  fructify,  and  perish  in  the  following  spring  or  summer.  Annuals 
are  fibrous-rooted. 

85.  Biennials,  of  which  the  Turnip,  Beet,  and  Carrot  are  familiar  ex- 
amples, grow  the  first  season  williout  blossoming,  usually  thicken  their 
roots,  kying  up  in  them  a  stock  of  nourishment,  are  quiescent  during  the 
winter,  but  shoot  vigorously,  blossom,  and  seed  the  next  spring  or  summer, 
mainly  at  the  expense  of  the  food  stored  up,  and  then  die  completely. 
Annuals  and  biennials  flower  only  once ;  hence  they  have  been  called 
Monocarpic  (that  is,  once-fruiting)  plants. 

86.  Perennials  live  and  blossom  year  after  year.  A  perennial  herb,  in 
a  temperate  or  cooler  climate,  usually  dies  down  to  the  ground  at  the  end 
of  the  season's  growth.  But  subterranean  portions  of  stem,  charged  with 
buds,  survive  to  renew  the  development.  Shi'ubs  and  trees  are  of  course 
perennial ;  even  the  stems  and  branches  above  ground  live  on  and  grow 
year  after  year. 

87.  There  are  all  gradations  between  annuals  and  biennials,  and  between 
these  and  perennials,  as  also  between  herbs  and  shrubs ;  and  the  distinc- 
tion between  shrubs  and  trees  is  quite  arbitrary.  There  are  perennial  herbs 
and  even  shrubs  of  warm  climates  which  are  annuals  when  raised  in  a  cli- 
mate which  has  a  winter,  —  being  destroyed  by  frost.  The  Castor-oil  plant 
is  an  example.  There  are  perennial  herbs  of  which  only  small  portions 
survive,  as  off-shoots,  or,  in  the  Potato,  as  tubers,  etCt 


Section   VI.     STEMS. 

88.  The  Stem  is  the  axis  of  the  plant,  the  part  which  bears  all  the 
other  organs.  Branches  are  secondary  stems,  that  is,  stems  growing  out  of 
stems.  The  stem  at  the  very  beginning  produces  roots,  in  most  plants  a 
single  root  from  the  base  of  the  embryo-stem,  or  caulicle.  As  this  root 
becomes  a  descending  axis,  so  the  stem,  which  grows  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion is  called  the  ascending  axis.  Rising  out  of  the  soil,  the  stem  bears 
leaves ;  and  leaf-bearing  is  the  particular  characteristic  of  the  stem.  But 
there  are  forms  of  stems  that  remain  underground,  or  make  a  part  of  their 
growth  there.  These  do  not  bear  leaves,  in  the  common  sense ;  yet  they 
bear  rudiments  of  leaves,  or  what  answers  to  leaves,  although  not  in  the 
form  of  foliage.  The  so-called  stemless  or  acaulescent  plants  are  those 
which  bear  no  obvious  stem  (caulis)  above  ground,  but  only  flower-stalks, 
and  the  like. 


SECTION   6.] 


STEMS. 


39 


89.  Stems  above  ground,  through  differences  in  duration,  texture,  and 
size,  form  herbs,  shrubs,  trees,  etc.,  or  in  other  terms  are 

Herbaceous,  dying  down  to  the  ground  every  year,  or  after  blossoming. 

Suffnttesce/it,  slightly  woody  below,  there  surviving  from  year  to  year. 

Suffniticose  or  Frutescent,  when  low  stems  are  decidedly  woody  below, 
but  herbaceous  above. 

Fruticose  or  Shrubby,  woody,  living  from  year  to  year,  and  of  considerable 
size,  —  not,  however,  more  than  three  or  four  times  the  height  of  a  raau. 

Arborescent,  when  tree-like  in  appearance  or  mode  of  growth,  or  ap- 
proaching a  tree  in  size. 

Arboreous,  when  forming  a  proper  tree-trunk. 

90.  As  to  direction  taken  in  growing,  stems  may,  instead  of  growing 
upright  or  erect,  be 

Diffuse,  that  is,  loosely  spreading  in  all  directions. 
Declined,  when  turned  or  bending  over  to  one  side. 
Decumbent,  I'echning  on  the  ground,  as  if  too  weak  to  stand. 
Assurgent  or  Ascending,  rising  obliquely  upwards. 
Procumbent  or  Prostrate,  lying  flat  on  the  ground  from  the  first. 
Creeping  or  Repent,  prostrate  on  or  just  beneath  the  ground,  and  striking 
root,  as  does  the  White  Clover,  the  Partridge-berry,  etc. 

Climbing  or  Scandent,  ascending  by  clinging  to  other  objects  for  support, 
whether  by  tendrils,  as  do  the  Pea,  Grape- Vine,  and  Passion-flower  and 
Virginia  Creeper  (Fig.  92,  93)  ;  by  their  twisting  leaf-stalks,  as  the  Virgin's 
Bower;  or  by  rootlets,  like  the  Ivy,  Poison  Ivy,  and  Trumpet  Creeper. 

Twining  or  Voluble,  when  coiling  spirally  around  other  stems  or 
supports ;  hke  the  Morning-Glory  (Fig.  90)  and  the  Hop. 

91.  Certain  kinds 
of  stems  or  branches, 
appropriated  to  spe- 
cial uses,   have   re- 
ceived distinct  substantive  names ;  such  as  the  following  : 

92.  A  Culm,  or  straw-stem,  such  as  that  of  Grasses 
and  Sedges. 

93.  A  Caudex  is  the  old  name  for  such  a  peculiar 
trunk  as  a  Palm-stem  ;  it  is  also  used  for  an  upright  and 
thick  rootstock. 

94.  A  Sucker  is  a  branch  rising  from  stems  under 
ground.  Such  are  produced  abundantly  by  the  Hose, 
Raspberry,  and  other  plants  said  to  multiply  "  by  the 
root."  If  we  uncover  them,  we  see  at  once  the  great 
difference  between  these  subterranean  brandies  and  real 

90  roots.     They  are  only  creeping  branches  under  ground. 

Remarking  how  the  upright  shoots  from  these  branches  become  separate 


Fig.  90.   Twining  or  voluble  stem  of  Morning-Glory. 


40 


STEMS. 


[SECTION   G. 


plants,  simply  by  the  dying  nil'  of  the  connecting  under-ground  stems,  the 
gardnur  expedites  the  result  by  cutting  them  through  with  his  spade. 
That  is,  he  propagates  the  plant  "  by  divisiou." 

95.  A  Stolon  is  a  branch  from  above  ground,  which  reclines  or  becomes 
prostrate  and  strikes  root  (usually  from  the  nodes)  wherever  it  rests  on  the 
soil.  Thence  it  may  scud  up  a  vigorous  shoot,  which  has  roots  of  its  own, 
and  becomes  an  independent  plant  when  the  connecting  part  dies,  as  it 
does  after  a  while.  The  Currant  and  the  Gooseberry  naturally  muUiply  in 
this  way,  as  well  as  by  suckers  (which  are  the  same  thing,  only  the  connect- 
ing i)art  is  concealed  under  ground).  Stolons  must  have  suggested  the 
operation  of  layering  by  bending  down  and  covering  with  soil  branches 
which  do  not  naturally  make  stolons ;  and  after  they  have  taken  root,  as 
they  almost  always  will,  the  gardener  cuts  through  the  conuectmg  stem, 
and  so  converts  a  rooting  branch  into  a  separate  plant. 

96.  An  Offset  is  a  short  stolon,  or  sucker,  with  a  crown  of  leaves  at  the 
end,   as   in  the    Houseleek  (Fig. 
91),  which  propagates  abundantly 
in  this  way. 

97.  A  Runner,  of  which  the 
Strawberry  presents  the  most  fa- 
mihar  and  characteristic  example, 
is  a  long  and  slender,  tendril-like 
stolon,  or  branch  from  next  the 
ground,  destitute  of  conspicuous 
leaves.  Each  runner  of  the  Straw- 
berry, after  having  grown  to  its  full 
length,  strikes  root  from  the  tip,  which  fixes  it  to  the  ground,  then  forms 
a  bud  there,  which  develops  into  a  tuft  of  leaves,  and  so  gives  rise  to  a  new 
plant,  whicli  sends  out  new  runners  to  act  in  the  same  way.  In  this 
manner  a  single  Strawberry  plant  will  spread  over  a  large  space,  or  produce 
a  great  number  of  plants,  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  all  connected  at 
first  by  the  slender  runners ;  but  these  die  in  the  following  winter,  if  not 
before,  and  leave  the  plants  as  so  many  separate  individuals. 

98.  Tendrils  are  branches  of  a  very  slender  sort,  like  runners,  not  destined 
like  them  for  propagation,  and  therefore  always  destitute  of  buds  or  leaves, 
being  intended  only  for  climbing.  Simple  tendrils  are  such  as  those  of 
Passion-flowers  (Fig.  92).  Compound  or  branching  tendrils  are  borne  by 
the  Cucumber  and  Pumpkin,  by  the  Grape-Vine,  Virginia  Creeper,  etc. 

99.  A  tendril  commonly  grows  straight  and  outstretched  until  it  reaches 
some  neighboring  support,  such  as  a  stem,  when  its  apex  hooks  around  it 
to  secure  a  hold ;  then  the  whole  tendril  shortens  itself  by  coiling  up 
spirally,  and  so  draws  the  shoot  of  the  growing  plant  nearer  to  the  sup- 
porting object.    But  the  tendrils  of  the  Virginia  Creeper  (Ampelopsis,  Fig. 


Fig.  91.    Houseleek  (Sempervivum),  with  olTsets. 


SECTION   6.] 


STEMS. 


41 


93),  ;is  also  the  sliorter  ones  of  the  Japanese  species,  effect  the  object  differ- 
ently, namely,  by  cxpaiidinj^  the  tips  of  the  tendrils  into  a  flat  disk,  with 
an  adhesive  face.     This  is  applied  to  the  supporting  object,  and  it  adheres 

lirinly ;  tlicn  a 
shortening    of 
the  tendril  and 
its  branches  by  coiling  brings  up  the  growing 
shoot  close  to  tlie  support.     This  is  an  adapta- 
tion for  climbing  mural  rocks  or  walls,  or  the 
■"n^N     trunks  of  trees,  to  which  ordinary  tendrils  are 
unable  to  cling.     The  Ivy  and  Poison  Ivy  attain 
the  same  result  by  means  of  aerial  rootlets  (78). 

100.  Some  tendrils  are  leaves  or  parts  of 
leaves,  as  those  of  the  Pea  (Fig.  35).     The  na- 

v\    i~^\  «?»  ma       ture  of  the  tendril  is  known  by  its  position.     A 

f\  K  %'/  M  \m  tendril  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  like  that  of  Pas- 
sion-flowers (Fig.  92)  is  of  course  a  stem,  i.  e. 
a  branch.  So  is  one  which  terminates  a  stem, 
as  in  the  Grape-Vine. 

101.  Spines  or  Thorns  (Fig.  95,  96)  are 
commonly  stunted  and  hardened  branches 
or  tips  of  stems  or  branches,  as  are  those  of 
Hawthorn,  Honey-Locust,  etc.     In  the   Pear 

92  and  Sloe  all  gradations  occur  between  spines 

and  spiue-likc  (spiuesceut)  branches.      Spines 


may  be   reduced  and  indurated  leaves ;  as  in  the  Barberry,  where  their 
nature   is  revealed  by  their  situation,  underneath  an  axillary  bud.     But 

Fig.  92.    A  small  Passion-flower  (Passiflora  sicyoides),  showins;  the  tendrils. 

Fio.  93.  Piece  of  tlie  stem  of  Virginia  Creeper,  bearing  a  leaf  and  a  tendril. 
9t.  Tips  of  a  tendril,  about  the  natural  .size,  showing  the  disks  by  which  they  hold 
fast  to  walls,  etc. 


42 


STEMS. 


[section  6. 


prickles,  such  as  those  of  Blackberry  aud  Roses,  are  only  excrescences 
of  the  bark,  aud  not  brauclies. 

102.  Equally  strange  forms  of 
stems  are  characteristic  of  the 
Cactus  family  (Fig.  111).  These 
may  be  better  understood  by  com- 
parison with 

103.  Subterranean  Stems 
and  Branches.  Tiiese  are  very 
numerous  and  various  ;  but  they 
are  commonly  overlooked,  or  else 
are  confounded  with  roots.  From 
their  situation  they  are  out  of  or- 
dinary sight ;  but  they  will  well 
repay  examination.  For  the  veg- 
etation that  is  carried  on  under 
ground  is  hardly  less  varied  or 
important  than  that  above  ground. 
All  their  forms  may  be  referred  to 
four  principal  kinds  :  namely,  the 
Rhizoma  (^Rhizome)  or  Rootstock, 
tlie  Tuber,  the  Conn  or  solid  bulb, 
and  the  true  Bulb. 

104.  The  Rootstock,  or  Rhi- 
zoma, in   its   simplest   form,  is 
merely  a  creeping  stem  or  branch 
growing  beneath  the   surface   of  the   soil,    or  partly  covered  by   it.     Of 
this  kind  are  the  so-called  creeping,  running,  or  scaly  roots,  such  as  those 


by  which  the  Mint  (Fig.  97),  the  Couch-grass,  or  Quick-grass,  and  many 
other  plants,  spread  so  rapidly  and  widely,  —  "  by  the  root,"  as  it  is  s;iid. 
Tiial  these  arc  really  stems,  aud  not  roots,  is  evident  from  the  way  in  which 


Fig.  95.  A  branching  thorn  of  Honey  Locust,  being  an  indurated  leafless  branch 
developed  from  an  accessory  bud  far  above  the  axil :  at  the  cut  portion  below,  tliree 
other  buds  (a)  are  concealed  luider  the  i)etiole. 

Fig.  96.  Spine  of  Cockspur  Thorn,  developed  from  an  axillary  bud,  as  the  leaf- 
scar  below  witnesses:  an  accessory  leaf-bud  is  seen  at  its  base. 

Fig.  97.    Rootstocks,  or  creeping  subterranean  branches,  of  the  Peppermint. 


SECTION  C]  STEMS.  43 

they  grow ;  from  their  consisting  of  a  succession  of  joints ;  and  from  the 
leaves  which  they  bear  on  each  node,  iu  the  form  of  small  scales,  just  like 
the  lowest  ones  on  the  upright  stem  next  the  ground.  They  also  pro- 
duce buds  in  I  lie  axils  of  these  scales,  showing  the  scales  to  be  leaves; 
whereas  real  roots  bear  neither  leaves  nor  axillary  buds.  Placed  as 
they  are  iu  the  damp  and  dark  soil,  such  stems  naturally  produce  roots, 
just  as  the  creeping  stem  does  where  it  lies  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

105.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  plants  with  these  running  rootstocks  take 
such  rapid  and  wide  possession  of  the  soil,  and  why  they  are  so  hard  to 
get  rid  of.  They  are  always  perennials ;  the  subterranean  shoots  live  over 
the  first  winter,  if  not  longer,  and  are  provided  with  vigorous  buds  at  every 
joint.  Some  of  these  buds  grow  in  spring  into  upright  stems,  bearing 
foliage,  to  elaborate  nourisliment,  and  at  length  produce  blossoms  for  re- 
production by  seed  ;  while  many  others,  fed  by  nour- 
ishment supplied  from  above,  form  a  new  generation 
of  subterranean  shoots  ;  and  this  is  repeated  over  and 
over  in  the  course  of  the  season  or  in  succeeding 
years.  Meanwhile,  as  the  subterranean  shoots  in- 
crease in  number,  the  older  ones,  connecting  the  suc- 
cessive growths,  die  off  year  by  year,  liberating  the 
already  rooted  side-branches  as  so  many  separate  plants ;  and  so  on  indefi- 
nitely. Cutting  these  running  rootstocks  into  pieces,  therefore,  by  the  hoe 
or  the  plough,  far  from  destroying  the  plant,  only  accelerates  the  propaga- 
tion ;  it  converts  one  many-branched  plant  into  a  great  number  of  separate 
individuals.  Cutting  into  pieces  only  multiplies  the  pest ;  for  each  piece 
(Fig.  98)  is  already  a  plantlet,  with  its  roots  and  with  a  bud  in  the  axil  of 
its  scale-like  leaf  (either  latent  or  apparent),  and  with  prepared  nourishment 
enough  to  develop  this  bud  into  a  leafy  stem  ;  and  so  a  single  plant  is  all  the 
more  speedily  converted  into  a  multitude.  Whereas,  when  the  subterra- 
nean parts  are  only  roots,  cutting  away  the  stem  completely  destroys 
the  plant,  except  in  the  rather  rare  cases  where  the  root  freely  produces 
adventitious  buds. 

106.  Rootstocks  are  more  commonly  thickened  by  the  storing  up  cf 
considerable  nourishing  matter  in  their  tissue.  The  common  species  of 
Iris  (Fig.  104)  in  the  gardens  have  stout  rootstocks,  which  are  only  partly 
covered  by  the  soil,  and  which  bear  foliage-leaves  instead  of  mere  scales, 
closely  covering  the  upper  part,  wliile  the  lower  produces  roots.  As  the 
loaves  die,  year  by  year,  and  decay,  a  scar  left  in  the  form  of  a  ring  marks 
the  place  wliere  each  leaf  was  attached,  that  is,  marks  so  many  nodes, 
separated  by  very  short  internodes. 

107.  Some  rootstocks  are  marked  with  large  round  scars  of  a  different 

Fig.  98.  A  piece  of  the  running  rootstock  of  tlie  Peppermint,  with  its  node  or 
joint,  and  an  a.xillary  bud  ready  to  grow. 


44 


STEMS. 


[section  6. 


sort,  like  tliose  of  the  Solomon's  Scul  (Fit^.  09),  which  gave  this  name  to 
the  plaut,  I'rom  their  looking  somewhat  like  the  impression  ot'a  seal  upon 

wax.  Here  the 
rootstock  sends  up 
every  spring  an 
herbaceous  stalk  or 
stem,  which  bears 
the  foliage  and 
flowers,  and  dies 
in  autumn.  The 
seal  is  the  circular 

scar  left  by  the  death  and  separation  of  the  base  of  the  stout  stalk  from  the 
living  rootstock.  As  but  one  of  these  is  formed  each  year,  they  mark 
the  limits  of  a  year's  growth.  The  bud  at  tlie  end  of  the  rootstock  in  the 
figure  (which  was  taken  in  summer)  will  grow  the  next  spring  into  the 
stalk  of  the  season,  which,  dying  in  autumn,  will 
leave  a  similar  scar,  while  another  bud  will  be  formed 
farther  on,  crowning  the  ever-advancing  summit  or 
growing  end  of  the  stem. 

108.  As  each  year's  growth  of  stem  makes  its 
own  roots,  it  soon  becomes  independent  of  the  older 
parts.  And  after  a  certain  age,  a  portion  annually 
dies  off  behind,  about  as  fast  as  it  increases  at  the 
growing  end,  death  following  life  with  equal  and  cer- 
tain step,  with  only  a  narrow  interval.  In  vigoi'ous 
plants  of  Solomon's  Seal  or  Iris,  the  living  rootstock 
is  several  inches  or  a  foot  in  length ;  while  in  the 
short  rootstock  of  Trillium  or  Birthroot  (Fig.  100) 
life  is  reduced  to  a  narrower  span. 

109.  An  upright  or  short  rootstock,  like  this  of  Trillium,  is  commonly 
called  a  C.'VUDex  (93)  ;  or  when  more  shortened  and  thickened  it  would 
become  a  corm. 

110.  A  Tuber  may  be  understood  to  be  a  portion  of  a  rootstock  thick- 
ened, and  with  buds  (eyes)  on  tiie  sides.  Of  course,  there  are  all  grada- 
tions between  a  tuber  and  a  rootstock.  Helianthus  tuberosus,  the  so-called 
Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Fig.  101),  and  the  common  Potato,  are  typical  and 
familiar  examples  of  the  tuber.  The  stalks  by  which  the  tubers  are  at- 
tached to  the  parent  stem  are  at  once  seen  to  be  different  from  the  roots, 
both  in  appearance  and  manner  of  growth.  The  scales  on  the  tubers  are  the 
rudiments  of  leaves  ;  the  eyes  are  the  buds  in  their  axils.    The  Potato-plant 


Fig.  99.  Rootstock  of  Solomon's  Seal,  with  the  bottom  of  the  stalk  of  the  sea- 
son, and  the  Inul  for  the  ne.xt  year'.s  growth. 

Fig.  100.  The  very  short  rootstock  and  strong  terminal  bud  of  a  Trillium  or 
Birthroot. 


SECTION  6.] 


STEMS. 


45 


has  three  forms  of  branches  :  1.  Those  that  bear  ordinary  leaves  expanded 
in  the  air,  to  digest  what  they  gather  from  it  and  what  the  roots  gather 
from  the  soil,  and  convert  ii  into  nourishment.  2.  After  a  while  a  second 
set  of  branches  at  the  summit  of  the  plant  bear  flowers,  which  form  fruit 
and  seed  out  of  a  portion  of  the  nour- 
ishment which  the  leaves  have  pre- 
pared. 3.  But  a  larger  part  of  this 
nourishment,  while  in  a  liquid  state, 
is  carried  down  the  stem,  into  a  third 
sort  of  branches  under  ground,  and 
accumulated  in  the  form  of  starch  at 
their  extremities, 
which  become  tu- 
bers, or  deposito- 
ries of  prepared 
solid  food, — just 
as  in  the  Turnip, 
Carrot,  and  Dah- 
lia (Fig.  83-87), 
it  is  deposited  in  ^01 

the  root.  The  use  of  the  store  of  food  is  obvious  enough.  In  the  autunui 
the  whole  plant  dies,  except  the  seeds  (if  it  formed  them)  and  the  tubers  ; 
and  the  latter  are  left  disconnected  in  the  ground.  Just  as  that  small 
portion  of  nourishing  matter  which  is  deposited  in  the  seed  feeds  the 
embryo  when  it  germinates,  so  the  much  larger  portion  deposited  in  the 
tuber  nourishes  its  buds,  or  eyes,  when  they  Ukewise  grow,  the  next 
spring,  into  new  plants.  And  the  great  supply  enables  them  to  shoot 
with  a  greater  vigor  at  the  beginning,  and  to  produce  a  greater  amount 
of  vegetal  ion  than  the  seedUug  plant  could  do  in  the  same  space  of  time; 
which  vegetation  in  turn  may  prepare  and  store  up,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  weeks  or  months,  the  largest  quantity  of  solid  nourishing  material, 
in  a  form  most  available  for  food.  Taking  advantage  of  this,  man  has 
transported  the  Potato  from  the  cool  Andes  of  Chili  to  other  cool  climates, 
and  makes  it  yield  him  a  copious  supply  of  food,  especially  important  in 
countries  where  the  season  is  too  short,  or  the  summer's  heat  too  little,  for 
profitably  cultivating  the  principal  ijrain-plants. 

111.  The  Corm  or  Solid  Bulb,  like  that  of  Cyclamen  (Fig.  103),  and 
of  Indian  Turni|)  (Fig.  lOi),  is  a  very  short  and  thick  fleshy  subterranean 
stem,  often  broader  than  iiigh.  It  sends  ofl'  roots  from  its  lower  end,  or  rather 
face,  leaves  and  stalks  from  its  upper.  The  corm  of  Cyclanion  goes  on  to 
enlarge  and  to  produce  a  succession  of  flowers  and  leaves  year  at'ler  year. 


Fig.  101.   Tubers  of  Helianthus  tuberosus,  called  "artichokes." 
Fig.  102.    Bulblet-like  tubers,  such  as  are  occasionally  formed  on  the  stem  of  a 
Potato-plant  above  ground. 


46 


STEMS. 


[SECTION   C. 


That  of  ludiuu  Turuip  is  formed  one  year  aud  is  cousumed  tlie  next.  Tig. 
lO'l  represents  it  iu  early  summer,  having  below  the  corm  of  last  year,  from 
which  the  roots  have  fallen.     It  is  partly  consumed  by  the  growth  of  the 

stem  for  the  season,  and  the 
corm  of  the  year  is  forming 
at  base  of  the  stem  above 
the  line  of  roots. 

112.  The  corm  of  Crocus 
(Fig.  105,  106),  like  that 
of  its  relative  Gladiolus,  ia 
also  reproduced  annually, 
the  new  ones  forming  upon 
the  summit  aud  sides  of  the  old.  Such  a  corm  is  like  a  tuber  in  bud- 
ding from  the  sides,  i.  e.  from  the  axils  of  leaves ;  but  these  leaves,  instead 
of  being  small  scales,  are  the  sheathiug  bases  of  fo- 
liage-leaves which  covered  the  surface.  It  resem- 
bles a  true  bulb  iu  having  these  sheaths  or  broad 
scales ;  but  in  the  corm  or  solid  bulb,  this  soUd  part 
or  stem  makes  up  the  principal  bulk. 

113.  The  Bulb,  strictly  so-called,  is  a  stem  like 
a  reduced  corm  as  to  its  solid  part  (or  plate) ; 
while  the  maiu  body  consists  of  thickened  scales, 
which  are  leaves  or  leaf-bases.  These  are  like  bud- 
scales;  so  that  in  fact  a  bulb  is  a  bud  with  fleshy 
scales  on  an  exceedingly  sliort  stem.  Compare  a 
Wliite  Lily  bulb  (Fig.  107)  with  the  strong  scaly 
buds  of  the  Hickory  and  Horse-cliestuut  (Fig.  72 
and  73),  and  the  resemblance  will  appear.  In 
corms,  as  in  tubers  and  rootstocks,  the  store  of 
food  for  future  growth  is  deposited  in  the  stem; 
while  in  the  bulb,  the  greater  part  is  deposited  in 
the  bases  of  the  leaves,  cliangiug  them  into  thick 
scales,  which  closely  overlap  or  enclose  one  another. 

114.  A  Scaly  Bulb  (like  that  of  the  Lily,  Fig.  107, 108)  is  one  in  which 
the  scales  are  thick  but  comparatively  narrow. 

115.  A  Tunicated  or  Coated.  Bulb  is  one  in  which  the  scales  enwrap 
each  other,  forming  concentric  coats  or  layers,  as  in  Hyacinth  and  Onion. 

Fig.  103.  Corm  of  Cyclamen,  much  reduced  in  size  :  roots  from  lower  face,  leaf- 
stalks and  flower-stalks  from  the  upper. 

Fig.  104.    Corm  of  Indian  Turnip  (Arisaema). 

Fig.  105.  Corm  of  a  Crocus,  the  investing  sheaths  or  dead  leaf-bases  stripped 
off.  The  faint  cross-lines  represent  the  scars,  where  the  leaves  were  attached,  i.  e. 
the  nodes  :  the  spaces  between  are  the  internodes.  The  exhausted  corm  of  the 
previous  year  is  underneath  ;  forming  ones  for  next  year  ou  the  summit  and  sides. 

FlQ.  106.    Section  of  the  .■same- 


SECTION  6.] 


STEMS. 


47 


116.  Bulblets  are  very  small  bulbs  growing  out  of  larger  ones ;  or 
small  bulbs  produced  above  ground  on  some  plants,  as  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  of  the  bulbiferous  Lihes  of  the  gardens  (Fig.  110),  and  often  iu  the 
flower-clusters  of  the  Leek  and  Onion.  They  are  plainly 
buds  with  thickened  scales.  They  never  grow  into 
branches,  but  detach  themselves  when  full  grown,  fall  to 
the  ground,  and  take  root  there  to  form  new  plants. 

117-  Consolidated  Vegetation.  An  ordinary  herb, 
shrub,  or  tree  is  evidently  constructed  on  the  plan 
developing  an  extensive  surface.     In  fleshy  rootstocks. 


108  109 

tubers,  corms,  and  bulbs,  the  more  enduring  portion  of  the  plant  is  con- 
centrated, and  reduced  for  the  time  of  struggle  (as  against  drought,  heat, 
or  cold)  to  a  small  amount  of 
exposed  surface,  and  this  mostly 
sheltered  in  the  soil.  There  are 
many  similar  consolidated  forms 
which  are  not  subterranean. 
Thus  plants  like  the  Houseleek 
(Fig.  91)  imitate  a  bulb.  Among 
Cactuses  the  columnar  species  of 
Cereus  (Fig.  Ill,  (^),  may  be  Hk- 
ened  to  rootstocks.  A  green  rind  serves  the  purpose  of  foliage ;  but  the 
surface  is  as  notliing  compared  with  an  ordinary  leafy  plant  of  the  same 
bulk.  Compare,  for  instance,  the  largest  Cactus  known,  the  Giant  Cereus 
of  the  Gila  River  (Fig.  Ill,  in  the  background),  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  with  a  common  leafy  tree  of  the  same  height,  such 
as  that  in  Fig.  89,  and  estimate  how  vastly  greater,  even  without  the  foli- 
age, the  surface  of  the  latter  is  than  tliat  of  the  former.     Compare,  in  the 

Fig.  107.  Bulb  of  a  wild  Lily.  108.  The  same  divided  lengthwise,  showing  two 
forming  buds  of  the  next  generation. 

Fig.  109.  A  ground  leaf  of  White  Lily,  its  base  (cut  across)  thickened  into  a 
bulb-scale.     This  jilainly  shows  that  bulb-scales  are  leaves. 

Fig.  110.   Bulblets  in  the  axils  of  leaves  of  a  Tiger  Lily. 


id 


STEMS. 


[SECTION   6. 


same  view,  an  Opuntia  or  Prickly-Pear  Cactus,  its  stem  and  brandies 
formed  of  a  succession  of  thick  and  flattened  joints  (Fig.  Ill,  a),  which 
may  be  likened  to  tubers,  or  an  Epipliyllum  (d),  having  short  and  flat 
joints,  with  an  ordinary  leafy  slirub  or  herb  of  equal  size.  And  finally, 
in  j\Ielon-Cactuses,  Echinocactus  (c),  or  other  globose  forms  (which  may 
be  likened  to  permanent  conns),  with  their  globular  or  bull)-hkc  shapes, 
wc  have  plants  in  the  compaetest  shape;  their  spherical  figure  being  such 
as  to  expose  the  least  possible  amount  of  substance  to  the  air.  These  are 
adaptations  to  climates  which  are  very  dry,  either  throughout  or  for  a  part 
of  the  year.  Similarly,  bulbous  and  corm-bearing  plants,  and  the  like,  are 
examples  of  a  form  of  vegetation  which  in  the  growing  season  may  expand  a 
large  surface  to  the  air  and  light,  while  during  the  period  of  rest  the  living 
vegetable  is  reduced  to  a  globe,  or  solid  form  of  the  least  possible  surface; 
and  this  protected  by  its  outer  coats  of  dead  and  dry  scales,  as  well  as  by 
its  situation  under  ground.  Such  are  also  adapted  to  a  season  of  drought. 
They  largely  belong  to  countries  which  have  a  long  hot  season  of  little  or 
no  rain,  when,  their  stalks  and  foliage  above  and  their  roots  beneath  early 
perishing,  the  plants  rest  securely  in  their  compact  bulbs,  filled  with 
nourishment  and  retaining  their  moisture  with  great  tenacity,  until  the 
rainy  season  comes  round.  Then  they  shoot  forth  leaves  and  flowers  with 
wonderful  rapidity,  and  what  was  perhaps  a  desert  of  arid  sand  becomes 
green  with  foUage  and  gay  with  blossoms,  almost  in  a  day. 


SECTION   7.j  ORDINARY   LEAVES.  49 


Section   VII.     LEAVES. 

118.  Stems  bear  leaves,  at  definite  poiuts  (nodes,  13)  ;  and  tliese  are 
produced  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and  subserve  various  uses.  The 
coiiimouest  kind  of  leaf,  which  therefore  may  be  taken  as  the  type  or 
pattern,  is  an  expanded  green  body,  by  means  of  which  the  plant  exposes 
to  the  air  and  light  the  matters  which  it  imbibes,  exhales  certain  portions, 
and  assimilates  the  residue  into  vegetable  matter  for  its  nourisbment  and 
growth. 

119.  But  the  fact  is  already  familiar  (10-30)  that  leaves  occur  under 
other  forms  and  serve  for  other  uses,  —  for  the  storage  of  food  already 
assimilated,  as  in  thickened  seed-leaves  and  bulb-scales ;  for  covering,  as  in 
bud-scales ;  and  still  other  uses  are  to  be  pointed  out.  Indeed,  sometimes 
they  are  of  no  service  to  the  plant,  being  reduced  to  mere  scales  or  rudi- 
ments, such  as  those  on  the  rootstocks  of  Peppermint  (Fig.  97)  or  the 
tubers  of  Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Fig.  101).  These  may  be  said  to  be  of 
service  only  to  the  botanist,,  in  explaining  to  him  the  plan  upon  which  a 
plant  is  constructed. 

120.  Accordingly,  just  as  a  rootstock,  or  a  tuber,  or  a  tendril  is  a  kind 
of  stem,  so  a  bud-scale,  or  a  bulb-scale,  or  a  cotyledon,  or  a  petal  of  a  flower, 
is  a  kind  of  leaf.  Even  in  respect  to  ordinary  leaves,  it  is  natural  to  use 
the  word  either  in  a  wider  or  in  a  narrower  sense ;  as  when  in  one  sense 
we  say  that  a  leaf  consists  of  blade  and  petiole  or  leaf-stalk,  and  in  another 
sense  say  that  a  leaf  is  petioled,  or  that  the  leaf  of  Hepatica  is  three-lobed. 
The  connection  should  make  it  plain  whether  by  leaf  we  mean  leaf-blade 
only,  or  the  blade  with  any  other  parts  it  may  have.  And  the  student  will 
readily  understand  that  by  leaf  in  its  largest  or  morphological  sense,  the 
botanist  means  the  organ  which  occupies  the  place  of  a  leaf,  whatever  be 
its  form  or  its  function. 


§  1.    LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE. 

121.  This  is  tautological ;  for  foliage  is  simply  leaves :  but  it  is  very 
convenient  to  speak  of  typical  leaves,  or  those  which  serve  the  plant  for 
assimilation,  as  foliage-leaves,  or  ordinary  leaves.  Tliese  may  first  be 
considered. 

122.  The  Parts  of  a  Leaf.  The  ordinary  leaf,  complete  in  its  parts, 
consists  of  blade,  foot-stalk,  qx petiole,  and  a  pair  of  stipules. 

123.  First  the  Blade  or  Lamina,  which  is  the  essential  part  of  ordinary 
leaves,  that  is,  of  such  as  serve  tlie  purpose  of  foliage.  In  structure  it  con- 
sists of  a  softer  part,  the  ffree7i  pulp,  called  parenchyma,  which  is  traversed 
and  supported  by  a  fibrous  frame,  the  parts  of  whicli  are  called  ril)s  or  veins, 
on  account  of  a  certain  likeness  in  arrangement  to  the  veins  of  animals. 

4 


50 


LEAVES. 


[SKCTION    7. 


The  wholo  surfaco,  is  covered  l)y  n  transparent  skin,  tlip  Epider/nis,  not 

niililce  tliat.  wliicii  covers  t  he  surface  ol'  all  IVosh  shoots. 

12  k    Note  that  the  leat'-blade  expands  iiorizontally,  —  that  is,  normally 

presents  its  laces  one  to  the  sky,  the  other  to  the  ground,  or  when  the 

leaf  is  erect  the  upper  face  looks  toward  the  stem  that  bears  it,  the  lower 

face  away  from  it.     Whenever  this  is  not  the  case  there  is  something  to  be 

explained. 

125.    The  framework  consists  of  zcood,  —  a  fibrous  and  tough  material 

which  runs  from  the  stem  through  the  leaf-stalk,  when  there  is  one,  in  the 

form  of  parallel  threads  or  bundles  of  fibres ; 
and  in  the  blade  these  spread  out  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction,  to  form  the  ribs  and  cei>is 
of  the  leaf.  The  stout  main  branches  of 
the  framework  are  called  the  Ribs.  When 
there  is  only  one,  as  in  Fig.  112,  114,  or  a 
middle  one  decidedly  larger  than  the  rest, 
it  is  called  the  Midrib.  The  smaller  divi- 
sions are  termed  Feins ;  and  their  still 
smaller  subdivisions,  Veinlets.  The  latter 
subdivide  again  and  again,  until  they  be- 
come so  fine  that  they  are  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye.  The  fibres  of  which  they  are 
cpmposed  are  hollow;  forming  tubes  by 
which  the  sap  is  brought  into  the  leaves 
and  carried  to  every  part. 

126.  Venation  is  the  name  of  the  mode 
of  veining,  that  is,  of  the  way  in  M-hich  the 
veins  are  distributed  in  the  blade.     This  is 

of  two  principal  kinds  ;  namely,  the  parallel-veitied,  and  the  netied-veined. 

127.  In  Netted-veined  (also  called  Reticulated')  leaves,  the  veins  branch 
off  from  the  main  rib  or  ribs,  divide  into  finer  and  finer  veinlets,  and  the 
branches  unite  with  each  other  to  form  meshes  of  network.  That  is,  they 
anastomose,  as  anatomists  say  of  the  veins  and  arteries  of  the  body.  The 
Quince-leaf,  in  Fig.  112,  shows  this  kind  of  veining  in  a  leaf  with  a  single 
rib.  The  Maple,  Basswood,  Plane  or  Buttonwood  (Fig.  74)  show  it  in 
leaves  of  several  ribs. 

128.  In  parallel-veined  leaves,  the  whole  framework  consists  of  slender 
ribs  or  veins,  which  run  parallel  with  each  other,  or  nearly  so,  from  the 
base  to  the  point  of  the  leaf,  —  not  dividing  and  subdividing,  nor  forming 
meshes,  except  by  minute  cross-veinlets.  The  leaf  of  any  grass,  or  that  of 
the  Lily  of  the  Valley  (Fig.  11,3)  will  furnish  a  good  illustration.  Such 
parallel  veins  Linnaeus  called  Nerves,  and  parallel-veined  leaves  are  still 
<4ommonlv  called  nerved  baves,  while  those  of  the  other  kind  are  said  to  be 


Fiu.  11:2.    Leaf  of  ihu  Quince,  h,  blade,  p,  petiole;  st,  stipules. 


SECTION    7.] 


ORDINARY   LEAVES. 


51 


veined,  —  terms  which  it  is  convenient  to  use,  although  these  "nerves" 
and  "  veins  "  are  all  the  same  thing,  and  have  no  likeness  to  the  nervies  and 
little  to  tlie  veins  of  animals. 

129.    Netted-veined  leaves  belong  to  plants  which  have  a  pair  of  seed- 
leaves  or  cotyledons,  such  as  the  Maple  (Fig.  20,  24,),  Beech  (Fig.  33),  and 


the  like  ;  while  parallel-veined  or  nerved  leaves  belong  to  plants  with  one 
cotyledon  or  true  seed-leaf;  such  as  the  Iris  (Fig.  59),  and  Indian  Corn 
(Fig.  70).  So  that  a  mere  glance  at  the  leaves  generally  tells  what  the 
structure  of  the  embryo  is,  and  refers  the  plant  to  one  or  the  other  of  these 
two  grand  classes,  —  which  is  a  great  convenience.  For  when  plants  differ 
from  eacb  other  in  some  one  important  respect,  they  usually  differ  corres- 
pondingly in  other  respects  also. 

130.  Parallel- veined  leaves  arc  of  two  sorts,  — one  kind,  and  the  com- 
monest, having  the  ribs  or  nerves  all  running  from  the  base  to  the  point  of 
the  leaf,  as  in  the  examples  already  given  ;  while  in  another  kind  they  run 
from  a  midrib  to  the  margin,  as  in  the  common  Pickerel-weed  of  our 
ponds,  in  the  Banana,  in  Calla  (Fig.  114),  and  many  similar  plants  of 
warm  climates. 

131.  Netted-veined  leaves  are  also  of  two  sorts,  as  in  the  examples  al- 
ready referred  to.  In  one  case  the  veins  all  rise  from  a  single  rib  (the 
midrib),  as  in  Fig.  112,  116-127.  Such  leaves  are  called  Feather-veined 
ox  Penni-veined,  i.  e.  Pinnateli/-veined;  both  terms  meaning  the  same  thing, 
namely,  that  the  veins  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  the  rib  like  the  plume 
of  a  feather  on  each  side  of  the  shaft. 


Fig.  113.  A  (parallel-veined)  leaf  of  the  Lily  of  tlie  Valley.    114.  One  of  the 
Calla  Lily. 


52 


LEAVES. 


[section  7. 


132.  la  the  other  case  (as  in  Fig.  74,  129-132),  the  veins  braucli  off 
from  three,  five,  seven,  or  nine  ribs,  whicli  spread  from  the  top  of  the  leaf- 
stalk, and  run  through  the  blade  like  tlie  toes  of  a  web-footed  bird.  Hence 
these  are  said  to  be  Palmatel^  or  Digitatelij  veined,  or  (since  the, ribs  di- 
verge like  rays  from  a  cenircj  Radiate-veined. 

133.  Since  the  general  outUuc  of  leaves  accords  with  the  frame-work  or 
skeleton,  it  is  plain  W\^\  feather-veined  (or  penni-i:ei)ied )  leaves  will  incline 
to  clfjugated  shapes,  or  at  leabt  to  be  longer  tiian  broad ;  while  in  radiate- 
veined  leaves  more  rounded  forms  are  to  be  expected.  A  glance  at  the 
following  figures  shows  this. 

13'1.  Forms  of  Leaves  as  to  General  Outline.  It  is  necessary  to  give 
names  to  the  principal  shapes,  and  to  define  them  rather  precisely,  since 
they  afford  easy  marks  for  distinguishing  species.    The  same  terms  are  used 

1^ 


115   116      117        118         119  120 

for  all  other  flattened  parts  as  well,  such  as  petals ;  so  that  they  make  up  a 
great  part  of  the  descriptive  language  of  Botany.  It  will  be  a  good  exer- 
cise for  young  students  to  look  up  leaves  answering  to  these  names  and 
definitions.  Beginning  vnth  the  narrower  and  proceeding  to  the  broadest 
forms,  a  leaf  is  said  to  be 

Linear  (Fig.  115),  when  narrow,  several  times  longer  than  wide,  and  of 
the  same  breadth  thrnnghout. 

Lanceolate,  or  Lanrr-stiaped,  when  conspicuously  longer  tlian  wide,  and 
tapering  upwards  (Fig.  116),  or  both  upwards  and  downwards. 

Oblong  (Fig.  117),  when  nearly  twice  or  thrice  as  long  as  broad. 

Elliptical  (Fig.  118)  is  oblong  with  a  flowing  outline,  the  two  ends  alike 
in  width. 

Oval  is  the  same  as  broadly  elliptical,  or  elliptical  with  the  breadth  con- 
siderably more  than  half  the  length. 

Ovate  (Fig.  119),  when  the  outline  is  like  a  section  of  a  hen's  t^g 
lengthwise,  the  broader  end  downward. 

Orbicular,  or  Rotund  (Fig.  132),  circular  in  outhne,  or  nearly  so. 

135.  A  leaf  which  tapers  toward  the  base  instead  of  toward  the  apex 
may  be 

Oblanceolate  (Fig.  121)  when  of  the  lance-shaped  form,  only  more  tapering 
toward  the  base  than  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Spatulate  (Fig.  122)  when  more  rounded  above,  but  tapering  thence  to  a 
narrow  base,  like  an  old-fashioned  spatula. 


Fig.  115-120.   A  series  of  shapes  of  feather-veined  leaves. 


SECTION   7.] 


ORDINARY  LEAVES. 


53 


Obovate  (Fig.  123)  or  inversely  ovate,  that  is,  ovate  with  the  narrower 
end  down. 

Cunealc  or  Cuneiform,  that  is, 
Wedge-^aped  (Fig.  124),  broad 
above  and  tapering  by  nearly 
straight  lines  to  an  acute  angle  at 
the  base. 

13G.    As  to  the  Base,  its  shape 
characterizes  several  ioriiis,  such  as 
Cordate    or  Heart-shaped  (Fig. 
120,  129),  when  a  leaf  of  an  ovate  form,  or  something  like  it,  has  the  out- 
line of  its  rounded  base 
turned     in     (forming    a 
notch  or  sinus)  where  the 
stalk  is  attached. 

Reniform,  or  Kidney- 
shaped  (Fig.  131),  like 
the  last,  only  rounder  and 
broader  than  long. 

Auriculate,  or   Eared, 
having  a  pair  of  small 
125  126  127  and  blunt  projections,  or 

ears,  at  the  base,  as  in  one  species  of  Magnolia  (Fig.  12G). 

Sagittate,  or  arrow-shaped, 
where  such  ears  are  acute 
and  turned  downwards, 
while  the  main  body  of  the 
blade  tapers  upwards  to  a 
point,  as  in  the  common 
Sagittaria  or  Arrow-head, 
and  in  tlie  Arrow-leaved 
Polygonum  (Fig.  125). 
Hastate,  or  Halberd-shaped, 
when  such  lobes  at  the  base 
point  outwards,  giving  the 
shape  of  the  halberd  of  the 
olden  time,  as  in  another 
Polygonum  (Fig.  127). 

Peltate,  or  Shield-shaped  (Fig.  132),  is  the  name  applied  to  a  curious 
modification  of  the  leaf,  commonly  of  a  rounded  form,  where  the  footstalk 
is  attached  to  the  lower  surface,  instead  of  tlie  base,  and  therefore  is  natu- 

FiG.  121,  obl.-inceolate  ;  122,  spatulate  ;  123,  obovate;  and  124,  wedge-shaped, 
feather-veined,  leaves. 
Fig.  125,  .sagittate  ;  126,  auriculate  ;  and  127,  halberd-shaped  or  hastate  leaves. 
Fig.   128-132.  Various  forms  of  radiate-veined  leaves. 


54  LEAVES,  [section   7. 

rally  likened  to  a  shield  borne  by  the  outstretched  arm.  The  common 
Watershield,  the  Nelumbium,  and  the  White  Water-lily,  and  also  the  Man- 
drake, exhibit  this  sort  of  leaf.  On  comparing  the  shield-shaped  leaf  of 
the  common  Marsh  Pennywort  (Fig.  132)  with  that  of  another  common 
species  (Fig.  130),  it  is  at  once  seen  that  a  shield-shaped  leaf  is  like  a 
kiduey-shaped  (Fig-  130,'131j  or  other  rounded  leaf,  with  the  margins  at 
the  base  brought  together  and  united. 

137.  As  to  the  Apex,  the  following  terms  express  the  princii)al  varia- 
tions :  — 

Acuminate,  Pointed,  or  Taper-pointed,  when  the  summit  is  more  or  less 
prolonged  into  a  narrowed  or  tapering  point;  as  in  Fig.  133. 

Acute,  ending  in  an  acute  angle  or  not  prolonged  point ;  Fig.  134. 

Obtuse,  with  a  blunt  or  rounded  apex  ;  as  in  Fig.  135,  etc. 

Truncate,  with  the  end  as  if  cut  off  square  ;  as  in  Fig.  136. 

Retuse,  with  rounded  summit  slightly  indented,  forming  a  very  shallow 
notch,  as  in  Fig.  137. 

Emarginate,  or  Notched,  indented  at  the  end  more  decidedly;  as  in 
Fig.  138. 

Obcordate,  that  is,  inversely  heart-shaped,  where  an  obovate  leaf  is  more 
deeply  notched  at  the  end  (Fig.  139),  as  in  W' hite  Clover  and  Wood-sorrel ; 
so  as  to  resemble  a  cordate  leaf  inverted. 

Cuspidate,  tipped  with  a  sharp  and  rigid  point ;  as  in  Fig.  110. 

Mucronate,  abruptly  tipped  with  a  small  and  short  point,  like  a  mere 
projection  of  the  midrib ;  as  in  Fig.  141. 

Aristate,  Awn-pointed,  and  Bristle-pointed,  are  terms  used  when  this 
mucronate  point  is  extended  into  a  longer  bristle-form  or  slender  appen- 
dage. 

The  first  six  of  these  terms  can  be  applied  to  the  lower  as  well  as  to  the 
upper  end  of  a  leaf  or  other  organ.     The  others  belong  to  the  apex  only. 


138.  As  to  degree  and  nature  of  Division,  there  is  first  of  all  the  dif- 
ference between 

Simple  Leaves,  those  in  which  the  blade  is  of  one  piece,  however  much 
it  may  be  cut  up,  and 

Compotmd  Leaves,  those  in  which  the  blade  consists  of  two  or  more  sep- 
arate pieces,  upon  a  common  leaf-stalk  or  support.  Yet  between  these  two 
kinds  every  intormediate  gradation  is  to  be  met  with. 

139.  As  to  Particular  Outlines  of  Simple  Leaves  (and  the  same 
applies  to  their  separate  parts),  they  are 


Fig.  133-141.   Forms  of  the  ape.x  of  leaves. 


SECTION   7.] 


ORDINARY  LEAVES. 


55 


142 


113 


144 


145 


140 


147 


Entire,  whea  their  general  outline  is  completely  filled  out,  so  that  the 
margin  is  an  even  line,  without  teeth  or  notches. 

Serrate,  or  Saw-toothed,  when  the  margin  only  is  cut  into  sharp  teeth, 
like  those  of  a  saw,  and  pointing  forwards :  as  in  Fig.  142. 

Dentate,  or  Toothed, 

A 


when  such  teeth  point 
outwards,  instead  of 
forwards  ;  as  in  Fig, 
143. 

Crenate,  or  Seal-     j 
loped,  when  the  teeth    j 
are  broad  and  round-  i  ^ 
ed  ;  as  in  Fig.  144.      ^   - 

Repand,  Undulate,    \ 
or  Wavy,  when  the  \ 
margin   of    the   leaf 
forms   a  wavy  line, 
bending  slightly  in- 
wards and  outwards  in  succession;  as  in  Fig.  145. 

Sinuate,  when  the  margin  is  more  strongly  sinuous  or  turned  inwards 
and  OTitwards  ;  as  in  Fig.  146. 

Incised,  Cut,  or  Jagged,  when  the  margin  is  cut  into  sharp,  deep,  and 
irregular  teeth  or  incisions ;  as  in  Fig.  147. 

Lobed,  when  deeply  cut.  Then  the  pieces  arc  in  a  general  way  called 
Lobes.  The  number  of  the  lobes  is  briefly  expressed  by  the  phrase  two- 
lobed,  three-lobed ,  Jice-lobed,  ma nj/ -lobed,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

140.  When  the  depth  and  character  of  the  lol)!ng  needs  to  be  more  par- 
ticularly specified,  the  following  terms  are  employed,  viz. :  — 

Lobed,  in  a  special  sense,  when  the  incisions  do  not  extend  deeper  than 
about  half-way  between  the  margin  and  the  centre  of  tlie  blade,  if  so  far, 
and  are  more  or  less  rounded ;  as  in  the  leaves  of  the  Post-Oak,  Fig.  148, 
and  the  Hepatica,  Fig.  152. 

Cleft,  when  the  incisions  extend  half  way  down  or  more,  and  especially 
^hen  they  are  sharp ;  as  in  Fig.  149,  153.  And  the  phrases  two-cleft,  or, 
in  the  L'ltin  form,  bijid,  three-cleft  or  trifid,  four-cleft  or  quadrifid,  five- 
cleft  or  fini/iquefid,  etc.,  or  mang-cleft,  in  tlie  Latin  form,  midtifid, —  express 
the  number  of  the  Segments,  or  portions. 

Parted,  when  the  incisions  are  still  deeper,  but  yet  do  not  quite  reacli 
to  the  midrib  or  the  base  of  the  blade;  as  in  Fig.  150,  154.  And 
the  terms  tico-parted,  three-parted,  etc.,  express  the  number  of  such 
divisions. 

Divided,  when  the  incisions  extend  quite  to  the  midrib,  as  in  the  lower 
part  of  Fig.  151,  or  to  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  Fig.  155  ;  Avhicli  really  makes  the 


Fig.  142-147.   Kinds  of  margiu  of  leaves. 


66 


LEAVES. 


[SECTION   7 


leaf  compound.     Here,  using  the  Lat  in  form,  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  bisected, 
trisected  (Fig.  153),  etc.,  accurdiug  to  the  number  of  the  divisions. 

141.  The  Mode  of  Lobing  or  Division  corresponds  to  that  of  the 
veining,  \\\\iii\\t\:  jjinnalelj/  veined  or  palniatclif  veined.  In  tlie  former  the 
notches  or  incisions,  or  sinuses,  coming  Ix'twcen  the  principal  veins  or  ribs 
are  directed  toward  the  midrib  :  in  tlie  latter  they  are  directed  toward  the 
apex  of  the  petiole  ;  as  the  figures  sliow. 

142.  So  degree  and  mode  of  division  may  be  tersely  expressed  in  brief 
phrases.  Thus,  in  tlie  four  upper  figures  of  piunately  veined  leaves,  tlie 
first  is  said  to  be  pinnatel^  lobed  (in  the  special  sense),  the  second  pinnateli/ 
cleft  (or  pinnatijid  in  Latin  form),  the  third  pinnatelj  parted,  the  fourtli 
^innately  divided,  or  pinnaiisected. 

143.  Correspondingly  in  the  lower  row,  of  palmately  veined  leaves,  the 
first  is  palmately  lobed,  the  second  palmately  clfft,  the  third  palmately 
parted,  the  fourth  palmately  divided.  Or,  in  other  language  of  the  same 
meaning  (but  now  less  commonly  employed),  they  are  said  to  be  digitately 
lobed,  cleft,  parted,  or  divided. 

144.  The  number  of  the  divisions  or  lobes  may  come  into  the  phrase. 
Thus  in  the  four  last  named  figures  the  leaves  are  respectively  palmately 


three-lobed,  three-cleft  (or  trifd),  three-parted,  three -divided,  or  better  (in 
Latin  form),  trisected.     And  so  for  higher  numbers,  -a^  fve-lobed,  fve-cleft. 


Fig.  148,  pinnately  lohed;  149,  pinnately  cleft;  150,  piunately  parted ;  151, 
pinnately  divided,  leaves. 

Fig.  152,  palmately  three  lobed  ;  153,  j)almately  three-cleft;  154,  [lalmately 
three-parted  ;  155,  palmately  three-divided  or  trisected,  leaves. 


SECTION   7.] 


ORDINARY  LEAVES. 


57 


etc.,  up  to  matiy-lobed,  many-cleft  or  muUiJid,  clc.  The  same  mode  of  ex- 
pression may  be  used  for  piuuatcly  lobed  leaves,  as  pumatclj  1-lobed,  -cleft, 
-parted,  etc. 

145.  The  divisions,  lobes,  etc.,  may  themselves  be  ailire  (without  teeth 
or  uotches),  or  serrate,  or  otherwise  toothed  or  iucised;  or  lobed,  cleft, 
parted,  etc. :  in  the  latter  cases  making  twice  pinnafifid,  twice  palmately  or 
piimately  lobed,  parted,  or  divided  leaves,  etc.  From  these  illustrations 
one  will  perceive  how  the  botanist,  in  two  or  three  words,  may  describe 
any  one  of  the  almost  endlessly  diversified  shapes  of  leaves,  so  as  to  give  a 
clear  and  definite  idea  of  it. 

14G.  Compound  Leaves.  A  compound  leaf  is  one  wliich  has  its  blade 
in  entirely  separate  parts,  each  usually  with  a  stalklet  of  its  own ;  and  the 
stalklet  is  oiten  Jointed  (or  articulated)  with  the  main  leaf-stalk,  just  as  this 

re 


g>^s? 


is  jointed  witU  the  stem.  When  this  is  the  case,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  leaf  is  compound.  But  when  the  pieces  have  no  stalklets,  and  are  not 
jointed  with  the  main  leaf-stalk,  it  may  be  considered  either  as  a  divided 
simple  leaf,  or  a  compound  leaf,  according  to  the  circumstances.  This  is 
a  matter  of  names  where  all  intermediate  forms  may  be  expected. 

147.  While  the  pieces  or  projecting  parts  of  a  simple  leaf-blade,  are 
called  Lobes,  or  in  deeply  cut  leaves,  etc.,  Segments,  or  Divisions,  the  sep- 
arate pieces  or  blades  of  a  compound  leaf  are  called  Leaflets. 

148.  Compound  leaves  are  of  two  principal  kinds,  namely,  the  Pinnate 
and  \\\Q  Palmate ;  answering  to  the  two  modes  of  veining  in  reticulated 
leaves,  and  to  the  two  sorts  of  lobed  or  divided  leaves  (141). 

149.  Pinnate  leaves  are  those  in  which  the  leaflets  are  arranged  on  the 
sides  of  a  main   leaf-stalk;    as   in   Fig.   1.50-1.58,      Tlicy  answer  to  the 


Fig.  156-158.  Pinnate  leaves,  the  first  with  an  odd  leaflet  (ivld-pinnnte);  the 
second  with  a  tendril  in  place  of  uppermost  leaflets ;  the  third  ahrupthj  iiinnate, 
or  of  even  pairs. 


58 


LEAVES. 


[section  7. 


feather-veined  (}.  c.  pin)iateli/-veined)  simple  leaf;  as  will  be  seen  at  ouce 
ou  conipariiig  the  tonus.  The  leajiels  of  the  former  answer  to  the  lobes  or 
divisions  of  the  latter;  aud  the  coutiuuatioii  of  the  petiole,  along  whieh  the 
leallets  are  arranged,  answers  to  the  midrib  of  the  simple  leaf. 

150.  Three  sorts  of  pinnate  leaves  are  here  given.  Tig.  156  is  pinnate 
with  an  odd  or  end  leaflet,  as  in  the  Common  Loeust  and  the  Ash.  Fig. 
157  is  pinnate  with  a  tendril  at  the  end,  in  place  of  the  odd  lc;allet,  as  in 
the  Vetches  and  the  Pea.  Fig.  158  is  evenly  or  abruptlij  pinnate,  as  in  the 
Honey-Locust. 

151.  Palmate  (also  named  Digitate)  leaves  are  those  in  which  the  leaf- 
lets are  all  borne  on  the  tip  of  the  leaf- 
stalk, as  in  the  Luj)ine,  tiie  Common 
Clover,  the  Virginia  Creeper  (Fig-  93), 
and  the  Horse-chestnut  aud  Buckeye 
(Fig.  159).  They  evidently  answer  to 
the  radiate-veined  or  palmately-veined 
simple  leaf.  That  is,  the  Clover-leaf  of 
three  leaflets  is  the  same  as  a  palmately 
three-ribbed  leaf  cut  into  three  separatii 
leaflets.  And  such  a  simple  tive-lohed 
leaf  as  that  of  tiie  Sugar-Maple,  if 
more  cut,  so  as  to  separate  the  parts, 

wonld  produce  a  palmate  leaf  of  five  leaflets,  like  that  of  the  Horse-chestnut 
or  Buckeye. 

152.  Either  sort  of  compound  leaf  may  have  any  number  of  leaflets  ;  yet 
palmate  leaves  cannot  well  have  a  great  many,  since  lliey  are  all  crowded 
together  on  the  end  of  the  main  leaf-stalk.  Some  Lupines  have  nuie-,  or 
eleven;  the  Horse-chestnut  has  seven,  the  Sweet  Buckeye  more  commoulj 
five,  the  Clover  three.  A  pinnate  le'af  often  has  only  seven  or  five  leaflets, 
or  only  three,  as  in  Beans  of  the  genus  Phaseolus,  etc. ;  in  some  rarer  cases 
only  two;  in  the  Orange  and  Lemon  aud  also  in  the  common  Barberry 
there  is  only  one!  The  joint  at  the  place  where  the  leaflet  is  united  witli 
the  petiole  distinguishes  this  last  case  from  a  simple  leaf.  In  other  species 
of  these  genera  the  lateral  leaflets  also  are  present. 

153.  The  leaflets  of  a  compound  leaf  may  be  ^x^tx  entire  (;is  in  Fig. 
126-128),  or  serrate,  or  lobed,  cleft,  parted,  etc. ;  in  fact,  may  present  all 
the  variations  of  simple  leaves,  and  the  same  terras  equally  apply  to  tlicm. 

154.  When  the  division  is  carried  so  far  as  to  separate  what  would  be 
one  leaflet  into  two,  t'liree,  or  several,  the  leaf  becomes  doubh/  or  twice 
compound,  either  finnateiy  m  palmately,  as  the  case  may  be.  For  example, 
while  tlie  clustered  leaves  of  the  Honey-Ijoeust  are  simply  pinnate,  that  is, 
once  pinnate,  those  on  new  shoots  are  hipmnate,  or  twice  pinnate,  as  in 
Fiff.  160.     When  these  leaflets  are  again  divided  in  the  same  way,  the  leaf 


Fig.  159.   Palmate  (or  digitate)  leaf  of  five  leaflets,  of  the  Sweet  Buckeye. 


SECTION   7.] 


ORDINARY  LEAVES. 


59 


becomes  thrice  pinnate,  or  tripinnate,  as  in  many  Acacias.  Tlie  first  divi- 
sious  are  called  Pinna; ;  the  others,  Pinnules  ;  aud  the  last,  or  little  blades 
themselves,  Leajlets. 

155.  So  the  palmate  leaf,  if  again 
compounded  in  the  same  way,  be- 
comes twice  'palmate,  or,  as  we  say 
when  the  divisions  are  in  threes, 
twice  ternate  (in  Latin  form  biter- 
nate)  ;  if  a  third  time  compounded, 
thrice  ternate  or  triternate.  But 
if  the  division  goes  still  further, 
or  if  the  degree  is  variable,  we 
simply  say  that  the  leaf  is  decom- 
pound;  either  palmately  or  pin- 
nately  decompound,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Thus,  Fig.  161  repre- 
sents a  four  times  teruately  com- 
pound (in  other  words  a  ternately 
decompound)  leaf  of  a  common 
Meadow  Rue. 

156.  When  the  botanist,  in  de- 
scribing leaves,  wishes  to  express 
the  number  of  the  leaflets,  he 
may  use  terms  like  these:  — 

Unifoliolate,  for  a  compound 
leaf  of  a  single  leaflet ;  from  the 
Latin  unum,  one,  aud  foliolum, 
leaflet. 

Bifoliolate,  of  two  leaflets,  from  the  Latin  bis,  twice,  and  foliolum,  leaflet. 

Trifoliolute  (or  ternate),  of  three  leaf- 
lets, as  the  Clover ;  and  so  on. 

Palmateli/  bifoliolate,  trifoliolate, 
quadrifoliate,  plurifoliolate  (of  several 
leaflets),  etc.  :  or  else 

Pinnately  hi-,  tri-,  quadri-,  or  pluri- 
foliolate (that  is,  of  two,  three,  four, 
five,  or  several  leaflets),  as  the  case 
may  be :  these  are  terse  ways  of  de- 
noting in  single  plirases  both  the  num- 
ber of  leaflets  and  the  kind  of  com- 
pounding. 

157-    Of    foliage-leaves   having    certain   peculiarities    in   structure,   the 
following  may  be  noted  :  — 

Fig.  160.   A  twice-pinnate  (abruptly)  leaf  of  tlie  Honej'-Locust. 
Fig.  161.    Temately  decompound  leaf  of  Meadow  Rue. 


160 


60 


LEAVES. 


[SECTION    7. 


158.    Perfoliate  Leaves,     la  tlicse  the  stem  that  bears  tliem  seems  (o 
run  through  the  Ijhalc  of  tlic  leaf,  mure  or  less  above  its  base.     A  commou 


Bell-wort  (Uvularia  perfoliata,  Fig 

162)  is  a  familiar  illustration.  The  '"C-^i 

lower  and  earlier  leaves  show  it 

distinctly.    Later,  the  plant  is  apt 

to   produce   some   leaves    merely 

clasping  the  stem   by  the  sessile 

and   heart-shaped    base,   and  the 

latest  may  be  merely  sessile.     So 

the  series  explains  the  peculiarity  : 

in  the  formation  of  the  leaf  the 

bases,  meeting  around  the  stem,  grow  together  there. 

159.  Connate-perfoliate.  Such  are  the  upper  leaves  of  true  Honey- 
suckles. Here  (Fig.  163)  of  the  opposite  and  sessile  leaves,  some  pairs, 
especially  the  uppermost,  in  the  course  of  their  formation  unite  around  the 
stem,  which  thus  seems  to  run  through  the  disk  formed  by  their  union. 

160.  Equitant  Leaves.  While  ordinary  leaves  spread  horizontally,  and 
present  one  face  to  the  sky  and  the  other  to  the  earth,  there  are  some  that 
present  their  tip  to  the  sky,  and  their  faces  right  and  left  to  the  liorizon. 
Among  these  are  the  equitant  leaves  of  the  Iris  or  Flower-de-Luce.  In- 
spection shows  that  each  leaf  was  formed  as  '\l  folded  together  lenffthwise. 

Fig.  162.  Asiinuner  branch  of  Uvularia  perfoliata;  lower  leaves  perfoliate,  upper 
cordate-clasping,  uppermost  simply  sessile. 

Fig.  1G3.   Brancli  of  a  IToiieysuckle,  with  coniiate-perfoliate  leaves. 

Fig.  164.  Rootstock  and  equitant  leaves  of  Iris.  16,'j.  A  .section  across  the 
cluster  of  leaves  at  the  bottom,  showing  the  equitatiou. 


SECTION    7.J 


ORDINARY   LEAVES. 


Gl 


so  that  what  would  be  the  upper  surl'acc  is  wil.hiu,  and  all  grown  together, 
except  next  tlie  bottoii\,  where  each  leaf  covers  the  next  younger  one.  It 
was  I'roni  their  straddling  over  each  other,  hkc  a  man  on  horseback  (as  is 
seen  in  the  cross-section.  Fig.  105),  that  Linaajus,  with  his  lively  I'aucy, 
called  these  EqiiUcud  leaves. 

IGl.  Leaves  ■with  no  distinction  of  Petiole  and  Blade.  The  haves 
of  Iris  just  mentioned  show  one  form  of  this  The  iiut  but  narrow  leaves 
of  Jonquils,  UalTodils,  and  the  cylindrical  leaf  of  Onions 
are  other  instances.  Needlc-shujjed  leaves,  like  those  of 
the  Pine,  Larch,  and  Spruce,  and  the  awl-shajjed  as  well 
as  the  scale-shaped  leaves  of  Junipers,  lied  Cedar,  and 
Arbor-Vitffi  (Fig.  IGG),  arc  examples. 

IG2.  Phyllodia.  Sometimes  an  expanded /W/o/i?  takes 
the  place  of  the  blade ;  as  in  numerous  New  Holland 
Acacias,  some  of  which  are  now  common  in  greenhouses. 
Such  counterfeit  blades  arc  called  phjjlludia,  —  meaning 
leaf-like  bodies.  They  may  be  known  from  true  blades 
by  their  standing  edgewise,  their  margins  being  directed 
upwards  and  downwards ;  while  in  true  blades  the  faces 
look  upwards  and  downwards ;  excepting  in  equitant 
leaves,  as  already  explained. 

163.  Falsely  Vertical  Leaves.  These  are  apparent 
exce|)tions  to  the  rule,  the  blade  standing  edgewise  in- 
stead  of  flatwise  to  the  stem ;  but  this  position  comes 

by  a  twist  of  the  stalk  or  the  base  of  the 
blade.  Such  leaves  present  the  two 
faces  about  equally  to  the  light.  The 
Compass-plant  (Silphium  laciniatum)  is 
an  example.  So  also  the  leaves  of  Bolto- 
nia,  of  Wild  Lettuce,  and  of  a  vast  num- 
ber of  Australian  Myrtaceous  shrubs 
and  trees,  which  much  resemble  the 
phyllodia  of  the  Acacias  of  the  same 
country.  They  are  familiar  in  Calliste- 
mon,  the  Bottle-brush  Tlower,  and  in 
Eucalyptus.  But  in  the  latter  the 
leaves  of  the  young  tree  have  the  nor- 
mal structure  and  position. 

164.  Cladophylla,  meaning  branch- 
leaves.  The  foliage  of  Ruscus  (the  Butcher's  Broom  of  Europe)  and  of 
Myrsiphyllum  of  South  Africa  (cultivated  for  decoration  under  the  false 


Fio.  166.    Branch  of  Arbor-Vitse,  with  awl-shaped  and  scale-shaped  leaves. 
Fig.  167.   The  ambiguous  leaf  ?  (cladophyllum)  of  Myrsiphyllum. 
Fig.  168.    Same  of  Ruscus,  or  Butcher's  Broom. 


62 


LEAVES. 


[SECTION  7. 


name  of  Smilax)  is  peculiar  and  puzzling.  If  these  blades  (Fig.  167,  168) 
are  reall}'  leaves,  they  are  most  anomalous  in  oecupying  the  axil  of  anothei 
leaf,  reduced  to  a  little  seale.  Yet  they  have  an  upper  and  lower  face,  as 
leaves  should,  although  they  soon  twist,  so  as  to  stand  more  or  less  edge- 
wise. If  they  are  brauclics  which  have  assumed  exactly  the  form  and 
office  of  leaveSj  thej  are  equally  extraordinary  in  not  making  any  further 
development.  But  in  Ruscus,  flowers  are  borne  on  one  face,  in  the  axil 
of  a  little  seale  :  and  this  would  seem  to  settle  that  they  are  branches.  In 
Asparagus  just  the  same  things  as  to  position  are  thread-shaped  and 
branch'Jike. 


§  2.    LEAVES  OF  SPECIAL  CONFORMATION  AND  USE. 

165.  Leaves  for  Storage.  A  leaf  may  at  the  same  time  serve  both 
ordinary  and  special  uses.  Thus  in  those  leaves  of  Lilies,  such  as  the 
common  White  Lily,  which  spring  from  the  bulb,  the  upper  and  green  part 

serves  for  foliage 
and  elaborates 
nourishment,  while 
the  thickened  por- 
tion  or  bud-scale 
beneath  serves  for 
the  storage  of  this 
nourishment.  The 
thread-shaped  leaf 
of  the  Onion  ful- 
fils the  same  office^ 
and  the  nourishing 
matter  it  prepares 
is  deposited  in. 
its  sheathing  base, 
forming  one  of  the 
concentric  layers  of 
the  onion.  When 
these  layers,  so  thick  and  succulent,  have  given  up  their  store  to  the  grow- 
ing parts  within,  they  are  left  as  thin  and  dry  husks.  In  a  Houseleek, 
an  Aloe  or  an  Agave,  the  green  color  of  the  surface  of  the  fleshy  leaf  indi- 
cates that  it  is  doing  the  work  of  foliage ;  the  deeper-seated  white  por- 
tion within  is  the  storehouse  of  the  nourishment  which  the  green  surface 
has  elaborated.  So,  also,  the  seed-leaves  or  cotyledons  are  commonly  used 
for  storage.  Some,  as  in  one  of  the  Maples,  the  Pea,  Horse-chestnut, 
Oak,  etc.,  are  for  nothing  else.     Others,  as  in  Beech  and  in  our  common 


Fia  169.  A  young  Agave  Americana,  or  Century-plant}  fleshy-leaved. 


SECTION  7.  J 


SPECIAL  LEAVES. 


63 


Beans,  give  faint  indications  of  service  as  foliage  also,  chiefly  in  vain.     Still 
others,  as  in  the  Pumpkin  and  Flax,  having  served  for  storage,  develop 

iuto  the  first  efficient  foliage.     Compare 
11,  22 -.'iO,  and  the  accompanying  figures. 


166.  Leaves  as  Bud-Scales  serve  to 
protect  the  forming  parts  within  Hav- 
ing fulfilled  this  purpose  they  commonly 
fall  off  when  the  shoot  develops  and 
foliage-leaves  appear.  Occasionally,  as 
in  Y\g.  170,  there  is  a  transition  of  bud- 
scales  to  leaves,  wiiich  reveals  the  nature 
of  the  former.  Tiie  Lilac  also  shows  a 
gradation  from  bud-scale  to  simple  leaf. 
In  Cornus  florida  (the  Flowering  Dog- 
wood), the  four  bud-scales  which  through 
the  winter  protect  the  head  of  forming 
lowers  remain  until  blossoming,  and  then  the  base  of  each  grows  out  into 


Fig.  170.  Series  of  bnd-scales  ami  foliage-leaves  from  a  developing  bud  of  the 
Low  Sweet  Buckeye  (^Esculus  parvillora),  sliowiiig  nearly  complete  gradation,  from 
a  scale  to  a  couipoiind  leaf  of  five  leaflets;  and  that  the  scales  answer  to  reduced 
petioles. 

Fig.  171.  Shoot  of  common  Tjarlierry,  showing  transition  of  foliage-leaves  to 
spines. 


64 


LEAVES. 


[section  7. 


a  large  and  very  slio\ry  petal-like  leaf ;  the  original  dry  scale  is  apparent 
ill  the  notch  at  the  apex. 

107.  Leaves  as  Spines  occur  in  several  plants.  A  familiar  instauce  is 
that  of  the  couiinon  Barberry  (Fig.  171)-  In  almost  any  summer  shoot, 
most  of  the  gradations  may  be  seen  between  tlie  ordinary  leaves,  with 
sharp  bristly  teeth,  and  leaves  which  are  reduced  to  a  brandling  spine  or 
tliorn.  The  fact  that  the  spines  of  the  Barberry  pioduce  a  leaf-bud  iu 
tbeir  axil  also  proves  them  to  be  leaves. 


168.  Leaves  for  Climbing  are  various  in  adaptation.  True  foliage- 
leaves  serve  this  purpose ;  as  in  Gloriosa,  where  the  attenuated  tip  of  a  sim- 
ple leaf  (otherwise  like  that  of  a  Lily)  hooks  around  a  supporting  object ; 
or  iu  Solanum  jasminoides  of  the  gardens  (Fig.  172),  and  in  Maurandia, 
etc.,  where  tlie  leaf-stalk  coils  round  and  clings  to  a  support:  or  in  the 
compound  leaves  of  Clematis  and  of  Adlnmia,  in  which  both  the  leaflets 
and  their  stalks  hook  or  coil  around  the  support. 

109.  Or  in  a  compound  leaf,  as  in  the  Pea  and  most  Vetches,  and  in 
Cobsea,  while  the  lower  leaflets  serve  for  fohage,  some  of  the  uppermost 
are  developed  as  tendrils  for  climbing  (Fig.  167).  In  the  common  Pea  this 
is  so  with  all  but  one  or  two  pairs  of  leaflets. 

170.  In  one  European  Vetch,  the  leaflets  are  wanting  and  the  whole 
petiole  is  a  tendril,  while  the  stipules  become  the  only  foliage  (Fig.  173). 

171.  Leaves  as  Pitchers,  or  hollow  tubes,  are  familiar  in  the  common 
Pitcher-plant  or  Side-saddle  Flower  (Sarracenia,  Fig.  174)  of  our  bogs. 
These  pitchers  are  generally  lialf  full  of  water,  in  which  flies  and  other  in- 
sects are  drowned,  often  in  such  numbers  as  to  make  a  rich  manure  for  the 
plant.  More  curious  are  some  of  the  southern  species  of  Sarracenia,  which 
seem  to  be  specially  adapted  to  the  capture  and  destruction  of  flies  and 
other  insects. 


Fig.  172.   Leaves  of  Solanum  ja.iniinoides,  the  petiole  adapted  for  flimhing. 
Fig.  173.   Leaf  of  Lathyrus  Aphaca,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  stipules  ami  a  tendril. 


SECTION   7. J 


SPECIAL  LEAVES. 


65 


172.   The  leaf  of  Nepenthes  (Fig.  175)  combiues  three  structures  and 
uses.     The  expanded  part  below  is  foliage  -.  this  tapers  into  a  tendril  for 


climbing ;  and  this  bears  a  pitcher  with  a  lid.     Insects  are  caught,  and  per 
haps  digested,  in  the  pitclier. 

173.  Leaves  as  Fly-traps.  Insects  are 
caught  in  another  way,  and  more  expertly, 
by  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  the  plants 
of  this  country,  the  Dionsea  or  Venus's  Fly- 
trap, which  grows  in  the  sandy  bogs  around 
Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  Here  (Fig. 
170)  each  leaf  bears  at  its  summit  an  appen- 
dage which  opens  and  shuts,  in  shape  some- 
thing like  a  steel-trap,  and  operating  much 
like  one.  For  when  open,  no  sooner  does 
a  fly  alight  on  its  surface,  and  brush  against 
any  one  of  the  two  or  three  bristles  that  grow 
there,  tlian  the  trap  suddenly  closes,  captur- 
ing the  intruder.  If  the  fly  escapes,  the  trap 
soon  slowly  opens,  and  is  ready  for  another 
oa]>lure.  When  retained,  the  insect  is  after 
a  time  moistened  by  a  secretion  from  mi- 
imte  glands  of  the  inner  surface,  and  is 
digesteil.     In  the  various  species  of  Drosera  or  Sundew,  insects  are  caught 

Fig.  174.    Leaf  of  Sarracenia  purpurea,  entire,  and  another  with  the  upper  part 
cut  off. 

Fig.  175.    Leaf  of  Nepenthes;  foliage,  tendril,  and  pitcher  combined. 
Fig   176.    Leaves  of  Diousea;  the  trap  in  one  of  them  open,  in  the  others  closed. 

5 


66 


LEAVES. 


[section  7. 


by  sticking  fast  to  very  viscid  glaiuls  at  the  tip  of  strong  bristles,  aided 
by  adjacent  glaud-tippcd  l)ristlcs  wliich  bend  slowly  toward  the  captive. 
The  use  of  such  adaptations  and  ()j)eratious  may  be  explained  in  anothci 
place. 


§3.   STIPULES. 

174.  A  leaf  complete  in  its  parts  consists  of  blade,  leaf-stalk  or  petiole, 
and  a  pair  of  stipules.  But  most  leaves  have  either  fugacious  or  minute 
stipules  or  none  at  all ;  many  have  no  petiole  (the  blade  being  sessile  or 
stalkless)  ;  some  have  no  clear  distinction  of  blade  and  petiole ;  and  many 

of  these,  such  as  tliose  of  the  Onion  and 
all  phyllodia  (166),  consist  of  petiole  only. 
175.  The  base  of  the  petiole  is  apt  to 
be  broadened  and  flattened,  sometimes 
into  thin  margins,  sometimes  into  a  sheath 
which  embraces  the  stem  at  the  point  of 
attachment. 


176.  Stipules  are  such  appendages,  either  wholly  or  partly  separated 
from  the  petiole.  When  quite  separate  they  are  said  to  he  free,  as  in  Fig. 
112.     When  attached  to  the  base  of  the  petiole,  as  in  tlie  Rose  and  in 

Fig.  177.  Leaf  of  Red  Clover:  st,  stipules,  adhering  to  the  base  of  ;>,  the  petiole; 
b,  blade  of  three  leaflets. 

Fig.  178.  Part  of  stem  and  leaf  of  Prince's-Feather  (Polygonum  orientale)  with 
the  united  sheathing  stipules  forming  a  sheath  or  ucrea. 

Fig.  179.  Terminal  winter  bud  of  Magnolia  Umbrella,  natural  size.  180.  Outer- 
most bud-scale  (pair  of  stipules)  detached. 


SECTION   7.] 


THEIR  ARRANGEMENT. 


67 


Clover  (Fig.  177),  they  are  adnate.  Wlieu  the  two  stipules  unite  and 
sheathe  the  stem  above  the  insertion,  as  in  Polygonum  (Fig.  178),  this 
sheath  is  called  an  Ocrea,  from  its  likeness  to  a  greave  or  leggiu. 

177.  In  Grasses,  when  tlie  sheathing  base  of  the  leaf  may  answer  to 
petiole,  the  summit  of  the  sheath  commonly  projects  as  a  thin  and  short 
membrane,  like  an  ocrea :  this  is  called  a  Ligula  or  Ligule. 

178.  When  stipules  are  green  and  leaf-like  they  act  as  so  much  foliage. 
In  the  Pea  they  make  up  no  small  part  of  the  actual  foliage.  In  a  related 
plant  (Lathyrus  Aphaca,  Fig.  173),  they  make  the  whole  of  it,  the  remainder 
of  the  leaf  being  tendril. 

179.  In  m^ny  trees  the  stipules  are  the  bud-scales,  as  in  the  Beech,  and 
very  conspicuously  in  the  Fig-tree,  Tulip-tree,  and  Magnolia  (Fig.  179). 
These  fall  off  as  the  leaves  unfold. 

180.  The  stipules  are  spines  or  prickles  in  Locust  and  several  other 
Leguminous  trees  and  shrubs  ;  they  are  tendrils  in  Smilax  or  Greenbrier. 

§  4.    THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES. 

181.  Phyllotaxy,  meaning  leaf-arrangement,  is  the  study  of  the  position 
of  leaves,  or  parts  answering  to  leaves,  upon  the  stem. 

182.  The  technical  name  for  the  attachment  of  leaves  to  the  stem  is 


the  insertion.     Leaves  (as  already  noticed,  54)  are  inserted  in  three  modes. 
They"  are 

Alternate  (Fig.  181),  that  is,  one  after  another,  or  in  other  words,  with 
only  a  single  leaf  to  each  node  ; 

Fig.  181.    Alternate  leaves,  in  Linden,  Lime-tree,  or  Basswood. 
Fig.  182.    Opposite  leaves,  in  Red  Maple. 


68 


LEAVES. 


[section  7. 


Opposite  (Tig.  182),  wlien  there  is  a  pair  to  each  node,  the  two  leaves  in 
this  case  being  always  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  ; 

Whorled  or  Verticillate  (Fig.  1S3)  when  there  are  more  tlian  two  leaves 
on  a  node,  in  which  case  they  divide  the  circle 
equally  between  them,  forming  a  Verticel  or  whorl. 
When  there  are  three  leavi.s  in  the  whorl,  the 
leaves  are  one  third  of  the  circumference  apart ; 
wlieu  four,  one  quarter,  and  so  on.  So  tlie  plan  of 
opposite  leaves,  which  is  very  common,  is  merely 
that  of  whorled  leaves,  with  the  fewest  leaves  to  the 
whorl,  namely,  two. 

183.  In  both  modes  and  in  all  their  modifica- 
tions, the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  distribute  the 
leaves  systematically  and  in  a  way  to  give  them  a 
good  exposure  to  the  light. 
184.  Ko  two  or  more  leaves  ever  grow  from  the  same  point.  Tlie  so- 
called  Fe^nicled  or  Clustered  leaves  are 
the  leaves  of  a  braucli  the  nodes  of 
which  are  very  close,  just  as  they  are 
in  the  bud,  so  keeping  the  leaves  in  a 
cluster.  This  is  evident  in  the  Larch 
(Fig.  184),  in  which  examination  shows 
each  cluster  to  be  made  up  of  nume- 
rous leaves  crowded  on  a  spur  or  short 
axis.  In  spring  there  are  only  such 
clusters ;  but  in  summer  some  of  them 
lengthen  into  ordinary  shoots  with  scat- 
tered alternate  leaves.  So,  likewise, 
each  cluster  of  two  or  three  needle- 
shaped  leaves  in  Titeh  Pines  (as  in  Fig.  185),  or  of  five  leaves 
iu  White  Pine,  answers  to  a  similar  extremely  short  branch, 
springing  from  the  axil  of  a  thin  and  slender  scale,  which 
represents  a  leaf  of  the  main  shoot.  For  Pines  produce  two 
kinds  of  leaves,  —  1.  primary,  the  proper  leaves  of  the  shoots, 
not  as  foliage,  but  in  the  shape  of  delicate  scales  in  spring, 
which  soon  fall  away ;  and  2.  secondary,  the.  fascicled  leaves, 
from  buds  iu  the  axils  oi  the  former,  and  these  form  the 
actual  fohfia-e. 


Fig.  183.   Whorled  leaves  of  Galium. 

Fig.  184.  A  piece  of  stem  of  Larch  with  two  chisters  (fascicles)  of  numerous 
leaves. 

Fig.  185.  Piece  of  a  branch  of  Pitch  Pine,  with  three  leaves  in  a  fascicle  or  bun- 
dle, in  the  axil  of  a  thin  scale  which  answers  to  a  primary  leaf.  The  bundle  is  sur- 
rounded at  the  base  by  a  short  sheath,  formed  of  the  delicate  scales  of  the  axillary 
bud. 


SECTION   7.] 


THEIR  ARRANGEMENT. 


69 


185.  Phyllotaxy  of  Alternate  Leaves.  Alternate  leaves  are  distrib- 
uted along  the  stem  in  au  order  wliicli  is  uuiform  ibr  each  species.  The 
arrangement  in  all  its  modifications  is  said  to  be  spiral,  because,  if  we 
draw  a  line  from  the  insertion  (i.  e.  the  point  of  attachment)  of  one  leaf  to 
that  of  the  next,  and  so  on,  this  line  will  wiud  spirally  around  the  stem  as 
it  rises,  and  in  the  same  species  will  always  bear  the  same  number  of  leaves 
for  each  turn  round  the  stem.  That  is,  any  two.  successive  leaves  will 
always  be  separated  from  each  other  by  an  equal  portion  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  stem.  The  distance  in  height  between  any  two  leaves  may 
vary  greatly,  even  on  the  same  shoot,  for  that  depends  upon  the  length  of 
the  internodes,  or  spaces  between  the  leaves ;  but  the  distance  as  measured 
around  the  circumference  (in  other  words,  the  Angtdar  Divergence,  or  angle 
formed  by  any  two  successive  leaves)  is  uniformly  the  same. 

186.  Two-ranked.  The  greatest  possible  di- 
vergence is,  of  course,  where  the  second  leaf  stands 
on  exactly  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem  from  the 
first,  the  third  on  the  side  opposite  the  second,  and 
therefore  over  the  first,  and  the  fourth  over  the 
second.  This  brings  all  the  leaves  into  two  ranks, 
one  on  one  side  of  the  stem  and  one  on  the  other, 
and  is  therefore  called  the  Two-ranked  arrangement. 
It  occurs  in  all  Grasses,  —  in  Indian  Corn,  for  in- 
stance ;  also,  in  the  Basswood  (Fig.  181).  This 
is  the  simplest  of  all  arrangements,  and  the  one 
which  most  widely  distributes  successive  leaves,  but 
which  therefore  gives  the  fewest  vertical  ranks. 
Next  is  the 

187.  Three-ranked  arrangement,  —  that  of  all 
Sedges,  and  of  White  Hellebore.  Here  the  second 
leaf  is  placed  one  third  of  the  way  round  the  stem, 
the  third  leaf  two  thirds  of  the  way  round,  the  fourth 
leaf  accordingly  directly  over  the  first,  the  fifth  over 
the  second,  and  so  on.  That  is,  three  leaves  occur 
in  each  turn  round  the  stem,  and  they  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  one  third  of  the  circumference. 
(Fig.  186,  187.) 

188.  Five-ranked  is  the  next  in  the  series,  and 
the  most  common.  It  is  seen  in  the  Apple  (Fig.  188),  Cherry,  Poplar, 
and  the  greater  number  of  trees  and  slirubs.  In  this  case  the  line  traced 
from  leaf  to  leaf  will  pass  twice  round  the  stem  before  it  reaches  a  leaf 


Fig.  186.  Three-ranked  arrangement,  shown  in  a  piece  of  the  stalk  of  a  Sedge, 
with  the  leaves  cut  off  above  their  l)ases  ;  the  leaves  are  numbered  in  order,  from 
lto(J.  187.  Diagram  or  cross-section  of  the  same,  in  one  plane  ;  the  leaves  simi- 
larly numbered  ;  showing  two  cycles  of  three. 


70 


LEAVES. 


[SECTION   7. 


situated  directly  over  any  lelow  (Fii,'.  189).  Here  the  sixth  leaf  is  over 
the  first ;  the  leaves  staud  iu  five  perpendicular  rauks,  with  equal  angular 
distance  from  each  other;  and  this  distance  between  any  two  successive 
leaves  is  just  two  fifths  of  the  circumference  of  the  stem. 

189.  Ttie  five-ranked  arrangement  is  expressed  by  the  fraction  |.     This 
fraction  denotes  the  divergence  of 
the  successive  leaves,  i.  e.  the  an- 
gle they  form  with  each  other :  the 

'numerator  also  expresses  the  num- 
ber of  turns  made  round  the  stem 
by  the  spiral  line  in  completing 
one  cycle  or  set  of  leaves,  namely, 
two ;  and  the  denominator  gives 
the  number  of  leaves  in  each  cy- 
cle, or  the  number  of  perpendic- 
ular ranks,  namely,  five.  In  the 
same  way  the  fraction  ^  stands  for 
the  two-ranked  mode,  and  ^  for 
the  three-ranked  :  and  so  these 
different  sorts   are  expressed   by 

the  series  of  fractions  ^,  ^,  f .     Other  cases  follow  in 

the  same  numerical  ])rogressiou,  the  next  being  the 

190.  Eight-ranked  arrangement.    In  this  tlie  ninth  i 
leaf  stands  over  the  first,  and  three  turns  are   made 
around  the  stem  to  reach  it;   so  it  is  expressed  by 
the  fraction  |.     This  is  seen  in  the  Holly,  and  in  the 
common  Plantain.     Then  comes  the 

191.  Thirteen-ranked  arrangement,  in  which  the 
fourteenth  leaf  is  over  the  first,  after  five  turns  around  the  stem, 
common  Houseleek  (Fig.  191)  is  a  good  example. 

192.  The  series  so  far,  then,  is  ^,  ^,  |,  f,  ^\;  the  numerator  and  the 
denominator  of  each  fraction  being  those  of  the  two  next  preceding  ones 
added  together.  At  this  rate  the  next  higher  should  be  ^j,  then  J|,  and 
so  on :  and  in  fact  just  such  cases  are  met  with,  and  (commonly)  no  others. 
These  higher  sorts  are  found  in  the  Pine  Family,  both  in  the  leaves  and 
the  cones  and  in  many  other  plants  with  small  and  crowded  leaves.  But 
in  those  the  number  of  the  ranks,  or  of  leaves  in  each  cycle,  can  only  rarely 


190 


The 


Fig.  188.  Shoot  with  its  leaves  5-ranked,  the  sixth  leaf  over  tlie  first;  as  in  the 
Apple-tree. 

Fig.  189.  Diagram  of  this  arrangement,  with  a  spiral  line  drawn  from  the  attach- 
ment of  one  leaf  to  the  next,  and  so  on ;  the  parts  on  tlie  side  turned  from  the  eye 
are  fainter. 

Fig.  190.  A  ground-plan  of  the  same;  the  section  of  the  leaves  similarly  num- 
bered ;  a  dotted  line  drawn  from  the  edge  of  one  leaf  to  that  of  the  next  marks  out 
thp  spiraL 


SECTION   7.] 


THEIR  ARRANGEMENT. 


71 


be  made  out  by  direct  inspecliou.  They  may  be  indirectly  ascertuiued,  how- 
ever, by  studying  the  secondary  spirals,  as  they  are  called,  which  usually 
become  conspicuous,  at  least  two  series  oi"  I  hem,  one 
turning  to  the  riglit  and  one  to  the  left,  as  shown  hi 
Fig.  191.  For  an  account  of  the  way  in  which  the 
character  of  the  phyllotaxy  may  be  deduced  from  the 
secondary  spirals,  see  Stnictural  Botany,  Cliaptcr  IV. 
193.  Phyllotaxy  of  Opposite  andwhorled  Leaves. 
This  is  simple  and  comparatively  uniform.  The  leaves 
of  each  pair  or  whorl  are  placed  over  the  intervals 
between  those  of  the  preceding,  and  tlierefore  under 
the  intervals  of  the  pair  or  whorl  next  above.  The 
whorls  or  pairs  alternate  or  cross  each  other,  usually 
at  right  angles,  that  is,  they  decussate.  Opposite 
leaves,  that  is,  whorls  of  two  leaves  only,  are  far  com- 
moner than  whoi'ls  of  three  or  four  or  more  members. 
This  arrangement  in  successive  decussating  pairs  gives 
an  advantageous  distribution  on  the  stem  in  four  verti- 
cal ranks.  Whorls  of  three  give  six  vertical  ranks, 
and  so  on.  Note  that  in  descriptive  botany  leaves  in 
whorls  of  two  are  simply  called  opposite  leaves ;  and 
that  the  term  verticiUate  or  tchorled,  is  employed  only 
for  cases  of  more  than  two,  unless  the  latter  number 
is  specified. 

194.  Vernation  or  Praefoliation,  the  disposition 
of  the  leaf-blades  in  the  bud,  comprises  two  things  ;  1st, 
the  way  in  which  each  separate  leaf  is  folded,  coiled, 
or  packed  up  in  the  bud;  and  2d,  the  arrangement 
of  the  leaves  in  the  bud  with  respect  to  one  another. 
The  latter  of  course  depends  very  much  upon  the 
phyllotaxy,  i.  e.  the  position  and  order  of  the  leaves  upon  the  stem.  The 
same  terms  are  used  for  it  as  for  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  of  the 
flower  in  the  flower-bud.     See,  therefore,  "  Jistivation,  or  Prgefloration." 

195.  As  to  each  leaf  separately,  it  is  sometimes  straight  and  open  in 
vernation,  but  more  commonly  it  is  either  bent,  folded,  or  rolled  up.  Wlien 
the  upper  pari  is  bent  down  upon  the  lower,  as  the  young  blade  in  the 
Tulip-tree  is  bent  upon  the  leafstalk,  it  is  said  to  be  Inflexed  or  Reclined  in 
vernation.  When  folded  by  tlie  midrib  so  that  the  two  halves  are  placed 
face  to  face,  it  is  Conduplicate  (Fig.  193),  as  in  the  Magnolia,  the  Clierry, 
and  the  Oak.     When  folded  back  and  forth  like  the  plaits  of  a  fan,  it  is 

Fig.  191.  A  young  ])lant  of  tlie  Houseleek,  with  the  leaves  (not  yet  expanded) 
numbered,  and  exhibiting  the  13-ranked  arrangement;  and  showing  secondary 
spirals. 

Fig.  192.  Opposite  leaves  of  Enonyinus,  or  Spindle-tree,  showing  the  successive 
pairs  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 


72 


FLOWERS. 


[SECTIO^^  8. 


Plicate  or  Plaited  (Fig.  19 1),  as  in  the  Maple  and  Currant.     If  rolled,  it 
may  be  so  cither  from  the  tip  downwards,  as  in  Ferns  and  the  Sundew 

(l''iy.  197),  when  in  unroll- 

193  194  195  ing  it  resembles  the  head 

y'^       A        A  ^- — ->^        of  a  crosier,  and  is  said  to 

/^^  I  4%  ^^^^      ^^  Circiiiate ;  or  it  may  be 

^£^  {A/}  Cvl  vvA/y      lolled  up  parallel  with  the 

^^  VMttM  ^^ — ^      axis,  either  from  one  edge 

into  a  coil,  when  it  is  Co/i- 
voluie  (Fig.  195),  as  in  ihe 
Apricot  and  Plum ;  or  rolled 
from  both    edges   towards 
the     midrib,  —  sometimes 
inwards,  when   it  is   Invo- 
lute (Fig.  19S),  as   in  the 
Violet    and  Water  -  Lily  ; 
sometimes  outwards,  when  it  is  Kevolute  (Fig.  196),  in  the  Rosemary  and 
Azalea.    The  figures  are  diagrams,  representing  sections  through  the  leaf, 
in  the  way  they  were  represented  by  Linneeus. 


196 


Section  VIII.    FLOWERS. 

196.  Flowers  are  for  the  production  of  seed  (16).  Stems  and  branches, 
which  for  a  time  put  forth  leaves  for  vegetation,  may  at  length  put  forth 
flowers  for  reproduction. 


§  1.    POSITION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS,  OR  INFLOR- 
ESCENCE. 

197.  Flower-buds  ajipear  just  where  leaf-buds  appear;  that  is,  they  are 
either  terminal  or  axillarij  (47-49).  Morphologically,  flowers  answer  to 
shoots  or  branches,  and  their  parts  to  leaves. 

198.  In  the  same  species  the  flowers  are  usually  from  axillary  buds  only, 
or  from  terminal  buds  only ;  but  in  some  they  are  both  axillary  and 
terminal. 

199.  Inflorescence,  which  is  the  name  used  by  Linnaeus  to  signify  mode 
of  flower-arrangement,  is  accordingly  of  three  classes :  namely.  Indetenninate, 
when  the  flowers  are  in  the  axils  of  leaves,  that  is,  are  from  axillarv  buds; 
Determinate,  when  they  are  from  terminal  buds,  and  so  terminate  a  stem 
or  branch  ;  and  Mixed,  when  these  two  are  combined. 

200.  Indeterminate  Inflorescence  (likewise,  and  for  tlic  same  reason, 
called  indefinite  inflorescence)  is  so  named  because,  as  the  flowers  all  come 
from  axillary  buds,  the  terminal  bud  may  keep  on  growing  and  prolong  the 
stem  indefinitely.     This  is  so  in  Moneywort  (Fig.  199). 


SECTION  8.] 


INFLORESCENCE. 


73 


201.  When  flowers  tlius  arise  singly  from  the  axils  of  ordinary  leaves, 
they  are  axillary  and  sOlUari/,  not  collected  into  flower-clusters. 

202.  But  when  several  or  many  flowers  are  produced  near  each  other, 
the  accompanying  leaves  are 
apt  to  be  of  smaller  size,  or  of 
different  shape  or  character : 
then  they  are  called  Bracts, 
and  the  flowers  thus  brought 
together  form  a  cluster.  The 
kinds  of  flower-clusters  of  the 
indeterminate  class  have  re- 
ceived distinct  names,  according  to  their  form  and  disposition.  They  are 
principally  Raceme,  Corymb,  Umbel,  Spike,  Head,  Spadix,  Catkin,  and 
Panicle. 

203.  In  defining  these  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  some  of  the  following 
terms  of  descriptive  botany  which  relate  to  inflorescence.  If  a  flower  is 
stalkless,  i.  e.  sits  directly  in  the  axil  or  other  support,  it  is  said  to  be 
sessile.     If  raised  on  a  naked  stalk  of  its  own  (as  in  Fig.  199)  it  is  pedun- 

dilate,  and  the  stalk  is  a  Peduncle. 

204.  A  peduncle  on  which  a  flower-cluster  is  raised  is  a 
Common  peduncle.  That  which  supports  each  separate  flower 
of  the  cluster  is  a  Partial  peduncle,  and  is  generally  called  a 
Pedicel.  The  portion  of  the  general  stalk  ahjng  which 
flowers  are  disposed  is  called  the  Axis  of  inflorescence,  or, 
when  covered  with  sessile  flowers,  the  Rhachis  (liack-bone), 
and  sometimes  the  Receptacle.  The  leaves  of  a  flower-cluster 
generally  are  termed  Bracts.  But  when  bracts  of  different 
orders  are  to  be  distinguished,  those  on  the  common  pedun- 
cle or  axis,  and  which  have  a  flower  in  their  axil,  keep  the 
Xi9.me  o^  bracts  ;  and  those  on  the"  pedicels  or  partial  flower- 
stalks,  if  any,  that  of  Bractlets  or  Bracteoles.  The  for- 
mer is  the  preferable  English  name. 

205.  A  Raceme  (Fig.  200)  is  that  form  of  flower-cluster 
in  which  the  flowers,  each  on  their  own  foot-stalk  or  pedicel, 
are  arranged  along  the  sides  of  a  common  stalk  or  axis  of 
inflorescence;  as  in  the  Lily  of  the  Valley,  Currant,  Bar- 
berry, one  section  of  Cherry,  etc.  Each  flower  comes  from 
the  axil  of  a  small  leaf,  or  bract,  which,  however,  is  often 
so  small  that  it  might  escape  notice,  and  even  sometimes  (as 
in  the  Mustard  Family)  disappears  altogether.     The  lowest  blossoms  of  a 

Fig.  199.  Piece  of  a  flowering-stem  of  Moneywort  (Lysiniaehia  nunimularia,) 
with  .single  flowers  successively  produced  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  from  below 
upwards,  as  the  stem  grows  on. 

Fig.  200.  A  raceme,  with  a  general  peduncle  (p),  pedicels  (/?'),  bracts  (b),  and 
bractlets  {,b').    Plainly  the  bracts  here  answer  to  the  leaves  in  Fig.  199. 


'^^asS' 


FLOWERS. 


fSECTTON  8. 


raceme  are  of  course  the  oldest,  aud  therefore  open  first,  and  the  order  of 
bhjssoming  is  ascending  fruiu  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  suiiiinit,  never 
being  stopped  by  a  teruiiual  llower,  may  go  ou  to  grow,  and  often  docs 
so  (as  in  the  commou  Shepherd's  Purse),  producing  lateral  flowers  one 
after  another  for  many  weeks. 

200.  A  Corjnnb  (Fig.  202)  is  tlie  same  as  a  raceme,  except  that  it  is 
flat  and  broad,  cither  convex,  or  L'vel-toppcd.  That  is,  a  raceme  becomes 
a  corymb  by  lengthening  the  lower  pedicels  while  the  uppermost  remain 


shorter.     The  axis  of  a  corymb  is  short  in  proportion  to  the  lower  pedicels. 

By  extreme  shortening  of  the  axis  the  corymb  may  be  converted  into 
207.   An  Umbel  (Fig.  203)  as  in  the  Milkweed,  a  sort  of  flower-cluster 

where  the  pedicels  all  spring  apparently  from  the  same  point,  from  the  top 

of  the  peduncle,  so  as  to  resemble,  when  spreading,  the  rays  of  an  umbrella ; 
whence  the  name.  Here  the  pedicels  are  sometimes  called  the 
Rays  of  the  umbel.  And  the  bracts,  when  brought  in  this  way 
into  a  cluster  or  circle,  form  what  is  called  an  Involucke. 

208.  The  corymb  and  the  umbel  being  more  or  less  level- 
topped,  bringing  the  flowers  into  a  horizontal  plane  or  a  con- 
vex form,  the  ascending  order  of  development  appears  as  Cen- 
tripetal. That  is,  tiic  flowering  proceeds  from  tiie  margin  or 
circumference  regularly  towards  the  centre;  tlie  lower  flowers 
of  the  former  answering  to  the  outer  ones  of  the  latter. 

209.  In  these  three  kinds  of  flower-clusters,  the  flowers  arb 
raised  on  conspicuous  pedicels  (204)  or  stalks  of  their  own.  The 
shortening  of  these  pedicels,  so  as  to  render  the  flowers  sessiU 
or  nearly  so,  converts  a  raceme  into  a  Spike,  aud  a  corymb  or  an 
umbel  into  a  Head. 

210.  A  Spike  is  a  flower-eluster  with  a  more  or  less  length- 
ened axis,  along  which  tlie  flowers  are  sessile  or  nearly  so;  as  in 
the  Plantain  (Fig.  20 1). 

A  Head  {Cupifiiluin)   is  a  round  or  roundish  cluster  of  flowers. 


Fro.  201.  A  raceme.     202.  A  corynili.     203.  An  umbel. 
Fig.  204.    Sjiike  of  tlie  common  Plantain  or  Rjbwort, 


SECTION   8.] 


INFLORESCENCE. 


75 


•which  are  sessile  on  a  very  sliort  axis  or  receptacle,  as  in  the  Button-ball, 
Button-busli  (Fig.  205),  aud  Kcd  Clover.     It  is  just  what  a  spike  would 


were  all 


become  if  its  axis  were  shortened;  or  an  nmbel,  if  its  pedicels 

shortened  until  the  flowers  became  sessile.     The  head 

of  the  Button-bush  is  naked ;  but  that  of  the  Thistle, 

of  the  Dandelion,  and  the  like,  is  surrounded  by  empty 

bracts,  which  form  an  Lirolucre.    Two  particular  forms 

of  the  spike   and  the  head   have  received  particular 

names,  namely,  the  Spadiv  and  the  Catkin. 

212.  A  Spadix  is  a  fleshy  spike  or  head,  with  small 
and  often  imperfect  flowers,  as  in  the  Calla,  Indian 
Turnip,  (Fig.  206),  Sweet  Flag,  etc.  It  is  commonly 
surrounded  or  embraced  by  a  peculiar  enveloping  leaf, 
called  a  Spatiie. 

21 3.  A  Catkin,  or  Ament,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
scaly  sort  of  spike  of  the  Birch  (Fig.  207)  and  Alder, 
the  Willow  and  Poplar,  and  one  sort  of  flower-clusters 
of  the  Oak,  Hickory,  and  the  like,  —  the  so-called  Amen- 
taceous trees. 

214.  Compound  flower-clusters  of  these  kinds  are 
not  uncommon.  When  the  stalks  which  in  the  sim- 
ple umbel  are  the  pedicels  of  single  flowers  themselves 
branch  into  an  umbel,  a  Compound  Umbel  is  formed. 


Fig.  205.    Head  of  the  Bnttoii-bush  (CephalaTithus). 

Fig.  206.    Spadix  and  spatlie  of  the  Indian  Turuip;  the  latter  cut  through  below. 

Fig.  207.    Catkin,  or  Anient,  of  Birch. 


76 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


This  is  tlie  inflorescence  of  Caraway  (Fig.  208),  Parsnip,  and  aliiiobl  all  of 
the  great  laniily  of  Uiiibellircrous  (uiiibel-beariug)  plants. 

215.  Tlic  second- 
ary or  partial  umbels 
of  a  compound  um- 
bel are  Umbellets. 
When  the  umbellets 
are  subtended  by  an 
involucre,  this  sec- 
ondary involucre  is 
^^8  called  an  Involucel. 

216.  A  Compound  raceme  is  a  cluster  of  racemes 
raccmosely  arranged,  as  in  Smilacina  racemosa.  A 
compound  corymb  is  a  corymb  some  branches  of  which 
branch  again  in  the  same  way,  as  in  Mountain  Ash.  A 
compound  spike  is  a  spicatcly  disposed  cluster  of  spikes. 

217.  A  Panicle,  such  as  that  of  Oats  and  many 
Grasses,  is  a  compound  flower-cluster  of  a  more  or  less 
open  sort  whicli  branches  with  apparent  ii'regularity, 
neither  into  corymbs  nor  racemes.  Fig.  209  repre- 
sents the  simplest  panicle.  It  is,  as  it  were,  a  raceme 
of  which  some  of  the  pedicels  have  branched  so  as  to 
bear  a  few  flowers  on  pedicels  of  their  own,  while 
others  remain  simple.  A  compound  panicle  is  one  that 
branches  in  this  way  again  and  again. 

218.  Determinate  Inflorescence  is  that  in  which  the  flowers  are  from 
terminal  buds.     The  simplest  case  is  that  of  a  solitary  terminal  flower,  as 


iu  Fig.  210.     This  stops  the  growth  of  the  stem  ;  for  its  terminal  bud,  be- 
coming a  blossom,  can  no  more  lengthen  in  the  manner  of  a  leaf-bud.    Any 


Fig.  208.    Compound  Umbel  of  Caraway. 

Fig.  209.    Diagram  of  a  .simple  panicle. 

Fig.  210.  Diagram  of  an  opposite-leaved  plant,  with  a  single  terminal  flower. 
211.  S.iiij'',  Willi  a  cj-nie  of  tliree  flowers;  a,  tlie  first  flower,  of  the  main  axis;  b  b, 
those  of  brandies.     212.    Same,  witli  flowers  also  of  tlie  tiiird  order,  c  c- 


SECTION  8.] 


INFLORESCENCE. 


77 


further  growth  must  be  from  axillary  buds  developing  into  branches.  If 
such  braucties  are  leafy  shoots,  at  length  terminated  by  single  blossoms, 
the  inflorescence  still  consists  of  solitary  flowers  at  the  summit  of  stem  and 
branches.  But  if  the  flowering  branches  bear  only  bracts  in  place  of  ordi- 
nary Icavtis,  the  result  is  the  kmd  of  flower-cluster  called 

219.  A  Cyme.  This  is  comiuoaly  a  flat-topped  or  convex  flower-cluster, 
like  a  corymb,  only  the  blossoms  arc  from  terminal  buds. 
Fig.  211  illustrates  the  simplest  cyme  in  a  plant  with  opjjo- 
sile  leaves,  namely,  with  three  flowers.  The  middle  flower, 
a,  terminates  the  stem  ;  the  two  others,  b  b,  terminate  branches, 
one  from  the  axil  of  each  of  the  uppermost  leaves ;  and  being 
later  than  the  niiddb  one,  the  flowering  proceeds  from  the 
centre  outwards,  or  is  Ceiitriftigal.  This  is  the  opposite  of 
the  indeterminate  mode,  or  that  where  all  the  flower-buds  are 
axillary.  If  flowering  branches  appear  from  the  axils  below, 
the  lower  ones  are  the  later,  so  that  the  order  of  blossoming 
continues  ccnlrifuyal  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  descending, 
as  in  Fig.  218,  making  a  sort  of  reversed  raceme  or  false  ra- 
ceme,—  a  kind  of  cluster  which  is  to  the  true  raceme  just 
what  the  flat  cyme  is  to  the  corymb. 

220.  Wiierever  there  are  bracts  or  leaves,  buds  may  be 
produced  from  their  axils  and  appear  as  flowers.  Fig.  212  represents  the 
case  where  the  branches,  b  b,  of  Fig.  211,  each  with  a  pair  of  small  leaves 
or  bracts  about  their  middle,  have  branched  again,  and  produced  the 
branchlets  and  flowers  c  r,  on  each  side.  It  is  the  continued  repetition  of 
this  which  forms  the  full  or  compound  cyme,  such  as  that  of  the  Laures- 
tinus,  Hobble-bush,  Dogwood,  and  Hydrangea  (Fig.  214-). 

221.  A  Fascicle  (meaning  a  bundle),  like  that  of  the  Sweet  William 
and  Lychnis  of  the  gardens,  is  only  a  cyme  with  the  flowers  much  crowded. 

222.  A  Glomerule  is  a  cyme  still  more  compacted,  so  as  to  imitate  a 
head.  It  may  be  known  from  a  true  head  by  the  flowers  not  expanding 
centripetally,  that  is,  not  from  the  circumference  towards  the  centre. 

223.  The  illustrations  of  determinate  or  ci/mose  inflorescence  liave  been 
taken  from  plants  with  opposite  leaves,  which  give  rise  to  the  most  regular 
cymes.  But  the  Rose,  Cinquefoil,  Buttercup,  etc.,  with  alternate  leaves, 
furnish  also  good  examples  of  cymose  inflorescence. 

224.  A  Cymule  (or  diminutive  cynic)  is  either  a  reduced  small  cyme  of 
few  flowers,  or  a  branch  of  a  compound  cyme,  i.  e.  a  partial  cyme. 

225.  Scorpioidor  Helicoid  Cymes,  of  various  sorts,  are  forms  of  de- 
terminate inflorescence  (often  puzzling  to  the  student)  in  which  one  half  of 
the  ramification  fails  to  appear.  So  that  they  may  be  called  incomplete 
cymes.     The  commoner  forms  may  be  understood  by  comparing  a  complete 


Fig.   213.    Diagram  of  a  simple  cyme  in  which  the  axis  lengthens,  so  as  to  take 
the  form  of  a  raceme. 


78 


FLOWERS. 


[SECTION  8. 


cyme,  like  that  of  Fig.  215  with  Fig.  216,  the  diagram  of  a  cyme  of  an  op- 
posite-leaved plant,  having  a  series  of  terminal  flowers  and  the  axis  con- 


tinued by  the  development  of  a  branch  in  the  axil  of  only  one  of  the  leaves 
at  each  node.    The  dotted  lines  on  the  left  indicate  the  place  of  the  wanting 


branches,  which  if  present  would 
convert  this  siorpioid  cyme  into  the 
complete  one  of  Fig.  215.  Fig.  217 
is  a  diagram  of  similar  inflorescence 
with  alternate  leaves.  Both,  are 
kinds  oi false  racemes  (219).  When 
the  bracts  are  also  wanting  in  such 
cases,  as  in  many  Borragineous 
plants,  the  true  nature  of  the  in- 
florescence is  very  much  disguised. 


Fig.   214.  Coinpouncl  cyrne  of  H)'draTige<a  arborescens,  with  neutral  enlarged 
flowers  round  the  circumference. 

Fig.  215.   A  complete  forking  cyme  of  an  Arenaria,  or  Ohickweerl. 

1<'IG.  216.    Diagram  of  a  scorpioid  cyme,  witli  opposite  leaves  or  bracts, 

F'O-  217.   Diagram  of  analogous  scorpioid  cyme,  with  alternate  leaves  or  bractm. 


SECTION   8.]  ORGANS  OF  THE  FLOWER.  79 

22G.  These  distiuctious  between  deteniiiuate  and  indeterminate  inflores- 
cence, between  corymbs  and  cymes,  and  between  the  true  and  tlie  false 
raceme  and  spike,  were  not  recognized  by  botanists  much  more  tlian  lialf 
a  century  ago,  and  even  now  are  not  always  attended  to  in  descriptions. 
It  is  still  usual  and  convenient  to  describe  rounded  or  flat-topped  and  open 
ramification  as  coiymbose,  even  wlien  essentially  cymose;  also  to  call  the 
reversed  or  false  racemes  or  spikes  by  these  (strictly  incorrect)  names. 

227-  Mixed  Inflorescence  is  that  in  whicii  the  two  plans  are  mixed  or 
combined  in  compound  clusters.  A  mixed  panicle  is  one  in  which,  while 
the  primary  ramification  is  of  the  indeterminate  order,  the  secondary  or 
ultimate  is  wliolly  or  partly  of  tiie  determinate  order.  A  contracted  or 
elongated  inflorescence  of  this  sort  is  called  a  Tuyrsus.  Lilac  and  Horse- 
chestnut  attbrd  common  examples  of  mixed  inflorescence  of  this  sort.  When 
loose  and  open  such  flower-clusters  are  called  by  the  general  name  of 
Panicles.  The  heads  of  Compositse  are  centripetal;  but  the  branches  or 
peduncles  which  bear  the  heads  are  usually  of  centrifugal  order. 


§2.  PARTS  OR  ORGANS  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

228.  These  were  simply  indicated  in  Section  II.  16.  Some  parts  are 
necessary  to  seed-bearing ;  these  are  Essential  Organs,  namely,  the  Stamens 
and  Pistils.  Others  serve  for  protection  or  for  attraction,  often  for  both. 
Such  are  the  leaves  of  the  Flower,  or  the  Floral  Envelopes. 

229.  The  Floral  Envelopes,  taken  together,  are  sometimes  called  the 
Perianth,  also  Periyone,  in  Latin  form  Perigonium.  In  a  flower  which 
possesses  its  full  number  of  organs,  the  floral  envelopes  are  of  two  kinds, 
namely,  an  outer  circle,  the  Calyx,  and  an  inner,  the  Coroli,.\. 

230.  The  Calyx  is  commonly  a  circle  of  green  or  greenish  leaves,  but 
not  always.  It  may  be  the  most  brightly  colored  part  of  the  blossom. 
Each  calyx-leaf  or  piece  is  called  a  Sepal. 

231.  The  Corolla  is  the  inner  circle  of  floral  envelopes  or  flower-leaves, 
usually  of  delicate  texture  and  colored.,  that  is,  of  some  other  color  thui 
green.     Each  corolla-leaf  is  called  a  Petal. 

232.  There  are  flowers  in  abundance  which  consist  wholly  of  floral  envel- 
opes. Such  are  the  so-called  full  double  flowers,  of  which  the  choicer  roses 
and  camellias  of  the  cultivator  are  familiar  examples.  In  them,  under  the 
gardener's  care  and  selection,  petals  have  taken  the  place  of  both  stamens 
and  pistils.  These  are  monstrous  or  unnatural  flowers,  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing seed,  and  subservient  only  to  human  gratification.  Their  common 
name  of  double  flowers  is  not  a  sensible  one :  except  that  it  is  fixed  by 
custom,  it  were  better  to  translate  their  Latin  name,  flores  pleni,  and  call 
them  full  floioers,  meaning  full  of  leaves. 

233.  Moreover,  certain  plants  regularly  produce  neutral  flowers,  consist- 
ing of  floral  envelopes  only.    In  Fig.  214,  some  are  seen  around  the  margin 


80 


FLOWERS. 


[s.-iCTION   8. 


of  tlie  cjMie  ill  Hydraugea.  Tliey  are  likewise  familiar  in  tlie  llobble-bush 
and  ill  \\'ild-('raiiberrv  tree,  Viburuuiu  Uxycoceus ;  where  tiioy  form  an 
attractive  setliug  to  the  cluster  of  small  aud  comparatively  ijicouspicuous 


218 

perfect  flowers  which  they  adoru.  In  the  Guelder  Rose,  or  Snow-ball  of 
ornamental  cultivation,  all  or  most  of  the  blossoais  of  this  same  shrub  are 
transformed  into  neutral  flowers. 

234.  The  Essential  Organs  are  likewise 
of  two  kinds,  placed  one  above  or  within 
the  other  ;  namely,  first,  the  Stameks  or 
fertilizing  organs,  and  second,  the  Pistils, 
which  are  to  be  fertilized  and  bear  the 
seeds. 

235.  A  Stamen  consists  of  two  parts, 
namely,  the  Filament  or  stalk  (Fig.  219  a), 
and  the  A-nther  (I/).  The  latter  is  the  only 
essential  ]iart.  Tt.  is  a  case,  commonly  with  two  lobes  or  cells,  each  opening 
lengthwise  by  a  slit,  at  the  proper  time,  and  discharging  a  powder  or  dust- 
like substance,  usually  of  a  yellow  color.  This  powder  is  the  Pollen,  or 
fertilizing  matter,  to  prodnoe  which  is  the  office  of  the  stamen. 

236.  A  Pistil  (Fig.  220,  221)  when  complete,  has  three  parts;  Ovaby, 
Style,  and  Stigma.  The  Ocan/,  at  base,  is  tlie  hollow  portion,  which  con- 
tains one  or  more  Ovules  or  rudimentary  seeds.     The  Sfj/le  is  the  tapering 


Fro.  218.    k  fins  pleniis,  namely,  a  full  doiihle  flower  of  Rose. 
Fig.  219.    A  stamen  :  a,  filament :  h,  anther,  (liscliarainc;  pollen. 
Fio.  G.^ii.    A  j>istil;  with  ovary,  a,  half  cut  away,  to  show  the  contained  ovules  i 
5,  style;   t,  .stigma. 


SECTION   8.] 


PLAN   OF  THE  FLOWER. 


81 


portion  above :  the  Stigma  is  a  portion  of  the  style,  usually  its  tip,  with 
moist   naked    surface,   upon  whicii  grams  of  pollen  may 
lodge  and  adhere,  aud  theucc  make  a  growth  wiiicli  ex- 
tends dowu  to  the  ovules.    Wheu  there  is  no  style  tlieu 
the  stigma  occupies  the  tip  of  the  ovary. 

237.  The  Torus  or  Receptacle  is  the  end  of  the 
flower-stalk,  or  the  portion  of  axis  or  stem  out  of  which 
the  several  organs  of  the  flower  grow,  upon  which  they 
are  borne  (Fig.  223). 

238.  The  parts  of  the  flower  are  thus  disposed  on  the 
receptacle  or  axis  essentially  as  are  leaves  upon  a  very 
short  stem ;  first  the  sepals,  or  outer  floral  leaves  ;  then 
the  petals  or  inner  floral  leaves ;  then  the  stamens ;  lastly, 
at  summit  or  centre,  the  pistils,  when  there  are  two  or 
more  of  them,  or  the  single  pistil,  when  only  one.  Fig. 
223  shows  the  organs  displayed,  two  of  each  kind,  of  such 
a  simple  and  symmetrical  flower  as  that  of  a  Sedum  or 
Stouecrop,  Fig.  222. 


221 


§  3.    PLAN  OF  FLOWER. 


239.  All  flowers  are  formed  upon  one  general  plan,  but  with  almost  in- 
finite variations,  aud  many  disguises.  This  common  plan  is  best  understood 
by  taking  for  a  type,  or  standard  for  comparison,  some  perfect,  complete. 


regular,  and  symmetrical  blossom,  and  one  as  simple  as  such  a  blossom 
could  well  be.     Flowers  are  said  to  be 

Perfect  {hermaphrodite'),  when  provided  with  both  kinds  of  essential  or- 
gans, i.  e.  with  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

Complete,  when,  besides,  they  have  the  two  sets  of  floral  envelopes,  namely. 


Fig.  221.   Model  of  a  simple  pi.stil,  with  ovary  cut  across  and  slightly  opened 
veiitrally,  to  show  the  ovules  and  their  attacliinent. 

Fig.  222.    Flower  of  Seduni  ternatnm,  a  Stonecrop. 

Fig.  223.   Parts  of  same,  two  of  each  kind,  separated  and  displayed  ;  the  torus  or 
receptacle  in  the  centre;  a,  a  sepal ;  b,  a  petal ;  c,  a  stamen  ;  d,  a  pistil. 

6 


82 


FLOWERS. 


[SECTION  8. 


calyx  and  corolla.    Such  are  completely  furnished  with  all  that  belongs  to 
a  flower. 

Regular,  when  all  the  parts  of  each  set  are  alike  in  shape  and  size. 
Symmetrical,  when  there  is  an  equal  number  of  parts  in  each  set  or  circle 
of  organs. 

240.  Flax-flowers  were  taken  for  a  pattern  in  Section  II.  16.  But  in 
them  the  five  pistils  have  their  ovaries  as  it  were  consolidated  into  one  body. 
Seduni,  Fig.  222,  has  the  pistils  and  all  the  other  parts 
free  from  such .  combination.  The  flower  is  perfect, 
complete,  regular,  and  symmetrical,  but  is  not  quite 
as  simple  as  it  might  be  ;  for  there  are  twice  as  many 
stamens  as  there  are  of  the  other  organs.  Crassula, 
a  relative  of  Sedum,  cultivated  in  the  conservatories 
for  winter  blossoming  (Fig.  224)  is  simpler,  being 
isosiemonous,  or  with  just  as  many  stamens  as  petals  or 
sepals,  while  Sedum  is  diplostemonous,  having  double 
that  number  :  it  lias,  indeed,  two  sets  of  stamens. 

241.   Numerical  Plan.     A  certain  number  either 
runs  through   the  flower  or  is  discernible  in  some  of 
iy^  // //   •-y"'  t'^.^ts.     This  number  is  most  commonly  either  five 

^^^;^j,^==:i^  or  three,  not  very  rarely  four,  occasionally  two.  Thus 
WiQ  ground-plan  of  the  flowers  thus  far  used  for  illus- 
tration is  five.  That  of  Trillium  (Fig.  226,  227)  is 
three,  as  it  likewise  is  as  really,  if  not  as  plainly,  in  Tulips  and  Lilies,  Crocus, 
Iris,  and  all  that  class  of  blossoms.  In  some  Sedums  all  the  flowers  are 
in  fours.  In  others  the  first  flowers  are 
on  the  plan  of  five,  the  rest  mostly  on 
the  plan  of  four,  that  is,  with  four  sepals, 
four    petals,     eight 


stamens  (i.  e.  twice 
four),  and  four  pis- 
tils. Whatever  the 
ground  number  may 
be,  it  runs  through 
the  whole  in  symmet- 
rical blossoms.  227  '     226 

242.   Alternation  of  the  successive  Circles.    In  these  flowers  the 
parts  of  the  successive  circles  alternate ;  and  such  is  the  nde.     That  is, 


225 


Fig.  224.   Flower  of  a  Crassula.    225.  Diagram  or  ground-plan  of  same. 

Fig.  226.   Flower  of  a  Trillium ;  its  parts  in  threes. 

Fig.  227.  Diagram  of  flower  of  Trillium.  In  this,  as  in  all  such  diagrams  of  cross- 
section  of  blossoms,  the  parts  of  the  outer  circle  represent  the  calyx  ;  the  next,  co- 
rolla; within,  stamens  (here  in  two  circles  of  three  each,  and  the  cross-section  is 
through  the  anthers) ;  in  the  centre,  section  of  three  ovaries  joined  into  a  compound 
one  of  three  cells. 


SECTION  8.]  PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER.  83 

the  petals  stand  over  the  intervals  between  the  sepals ;  the  stamens,  when 
of  the  same  number,  stand  over  the  intervals  between  the  petals;  or  when 
twice  as  many,  as  in  the  Trillium,  the  outer  set  alternates  with  the  petals, 
and  the  inner  set,  alternating  with  the  other,  of  course  stands  before  the 
petals;  and  the  pistils  alternate  with  these.  This  is  just  as  it  should  be  on 
the  tiieory  that  the  circles  of  the  blossom  answer  to  whorls  of  leaves,  which 
alternate  in  lliis  way.  While  in  such  (lowers  the  circles  are  to  be  regarded 
as  whorls,  in  others  they  are  rather  to  be  rpg.uiii  d  as  condensed  spirals  of 
alternate  leaves.  But,  however  this  may  be,  in  the  mind  of  a  morphological 
botanist, 

243.  Flowers  are  altered  Branches,  and  their  parts,  therefore,  altered 
leaves.  That  is,  certain  buds,  which  might  haye  grown  and  Iciigi  honed 
into  a  leafy  branch,  do,  under  other  circumstances  and  to  accomphsh  other 
purposes,  develop  into  blossoms.  In  these  the  a.\is  remains  short,  nearly 
as  it  is  in  the  bud ;  the  leaves  therefore  remain  close  together  in  sets  or 
circles;  the  outer  ones,  those  of  the  calyx,  generally  ])artake  more  or  less 
of  the  character  of  foliage ;  the  next  set  are  more  delicate,  and  form  the  co- 
rolla, while  the  rest,  the  stamens  and  pistils,  ap|)car  under  forms  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  ordinary  leaves,  and  are  concerned  in  tlie  production 
of  seed.  This  view  gives  to  Botany  an  interest  which  one  who  merely  no 
tiecs  the  sliape  and  counts  the  parts  of  blossoms,  without  understanding 
their  plan,  has  no  conception  of. 

244.  That  flowers  answer  to  branches  may  be  shown,  first,  from  thei\ 
position.  As  explained  in  the  section  on  Inflorescence,  flowers  arise  fron^ 
the  same  places  as  branches,  and  from  no  other;  flower-buds,  like  leaf-buds, 
appear  either  on  the  summit  of  a  stem,  that  is,  as  a  terminal  bud,  or  in  the 
axil  of  a  leaf,  as  an  axillary  bud.  And,  as  the  plan  of  a  symmetrical  flower 
shows,  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  on  their  axis  or  receptacle  is  that  of 
leaves  upon  the  stem. 

245.  That  the  sepals  and  petals  are  of  the  nature  of  leaves  is  evident 
from  thair  appearance;  they  are  commonly  called  the  leaves  of  the  flower. 
The  enlyx  is  most  generally  green  in  color,  and  foHaceous  (leaf-like)  in 
texture.  And  though  the  corolla  is  rarely  green,  yet  neither  are  projjcr 
leaves  always  green.  In  our  wild  Painted-cup,  and  in  some  scarlet  Sages, 
common  in  gardens,  the  leaves  just  under  the  flowers  are  of  the  brightest 
red  or  scarlet,  often  much  brighter-colored  than  the  corolla  itself.  And 
sometimes  (as  in  many  Cactuses,  and  in  Carolina  Allspice)  there  is  such  a 
regular  gradation  from  the  last  leaves  of  the  plant  (bracts  or  bractlets)  into 
the  leaves  of  the  calyx,  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  the  one  ends  and 
the  other  begins.  If  sepals  are  leaves,  so  also  are  petals ;  for  there  is  no 
clearly  fixed  limit  between  them.  Not  only  in  the  Carolina  Allspice  and 
Cactus  (Fig.  229),  but  in  the  Water-Lily  (Fig.  228)  and  in  a  variety  of 
flowers  with  more  than  one  row  of  petals,  there  is  such  a  complete  transi- 
tion between  calyx  and  corolla  that  no  one  can  surely  tell  how  many  of  the 
leaves  belong  to  the  one  and  how  many  to  the  other. 


84 


FLOWERS. 


[SECTION  8. 


between  petals  and  stamens. 


246.  Tliat  stamens  are  of  tlie  same  general  nature  as  petals,  and  there- 
fore a  modilicalion  of  leaves,  is  shown  bj  the  gradual  transitions  that  occur 

betwi'di  tlie  one  and  the 
other  in  many  blos- 
soms; especially' iu  cul- 
tivated flowers,  such  as 
Roses  and  Camellias, 
when  they  begin  to 
double,  thai  is,  to  change 
their  stamens  into  pet- 
als. Some  wild  and 
natural    flowers    show 

"\\  ';        '       •' 1  '' 'If  il  K/ //^     ^^^^     ^'''""^    interesting 

W  \  ' '      M  '"Wi.lll  #  transitions.     The  Caro- 

lina Allspice  and  the 
White  Water-Lily  ex- 
hibit complete  grada- 
tions not  only  between 
sepals  and  petals,  but 
The  sepals  of  our  Water-Lily  are  green  out- 
side, but  white  and  petal-like  on  the  inside  ;  the  petals,  in  many  rows, 
gradually  grow  narrower  towards  the  centre  of  the  flower ;  some  of  these 
are  tipped  with  a  trace  of  a  yellow 
anther,  but  still  are  petals;  the 
next  are  more  contracted  and  sta- 
men-like, but  with  a  flat  petal-like 
filament;  and  a  furtlier  narrow- 
ing of  this  completes  the  genuine 
stamen. 

247.  Pistils  and  stamens  now 
and  tiien  change  into  each  other  in 
some  Willows;  pistils  often  turn 
into  petals  in  cultivated  flowers ; 
and  in  the  Doul)le  Cherry  they 
are  occasionally  replaced  by  small 
green  leaves.  Sometimes  a  whole 
blossom  changes  into  a  cluster  of 
green  leaves,  as  in  the  "green 
roses  "  occasionally  noticed  in  gar- 
dens, and  sometimes  it  degenerates  into  a  leafy  branch.  So  tlie  botanist 
regards  pistils  also  as  answering  to  leaves ;  that  is,  to  single  leaves  wlien 
simple  and  separate,  to  a  whorl  of  leaves  when  conjoined. 


Fig.  228.   Series  of  sepals,  petals,  and  stamens  of  White  Water-Lily,  sho-wing 
ihe  transitions. 

FlQ.  229.    A  Caotns  lilossom. 


SECTION   8.]  MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE  TYPE. 


«5 


§   4.    MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TYPE. 

248.  The  Deviations,  as  they  may  be  called,  from  the  assumed  type  or 
pattern  of  flower  are  most  various  aud  extensive.  The  differences  between 
one  species  and  another  of  the  same  genus  are  comparatively  insignificant; 
those  between  different  genera  are  more  striking;  those  between  different 
families  aud  classes  of  plants  more  and  more  profound.  They  represent 
different  adaptations  to  conditions  or  modes  of  life,  some  of  which  have 
obvious  or  probable  utilities,  although  others  are  beyond  particular  expla- 
nation. The  principal  modifications  may  be  conveniently  classified.  First 
those  wliich  in  place  of  perfect  (otherwise  called  hermajihrodUe  or  bisexual) 
flowers,  give  origin  to 

249.  Unisexual,  or  Separated,  or  Diclinous  Flowers,  imperfect  flow- 
ers, as  they  have  been  called  in  contradistinction  to  perfect  flowers ;  but  that 


230 


term  is  too    ambiguous.      In  

these  some  flowers  waut  the  ^^ 

stamens,  while  others  waut  the  pistils.  Taking 
hermaphrodite  flowers  as  the  pattern,  it  is  natural 
to  say  that  the  missing  organs  are  suppressed.  This 
expression  is  justified  by  the  very  numerous  cases 
in  which  tlie  missing  parts  are  abortive,  that  is, 
are  represented  by  rudiments  or  vestiges,  which 
serve  to  exemplify  the  plan,  although  useless  as 
to  office.     Unisexual  flowers  are 

Monoecious  (or  Monoirmis,  i.  e.  of  one  household),  when  flowers  of  boll: 
sorts  or  sexes  are  produced  by  the  same  individual  plant,  as  in  the  Ricinus 
or  Castor-oil  Plant,  Fig.  230. 

Dioecious  (or  Dioirous.  i.  e.  of  separate  households),  when  the  two  knids 
are  borne  on  different  plants;  as  in  Willows,  Foplars,  Hemp,  and  Moon- 
seed,  Fig.  231,  232. 

Poli/gamous,  when  the  flowers  are  some  of  them   perfect,   and   some 

staminate  or  pistillaie  only. 

Fig.  230.  Unisexual  flowers  of  Castor-oil  plant :  s,  staminate  flower ;  p,  pistillate 
flower. 

Fig.  231,  staminate,  and  232,  \.istillate  flower  of  Moonseed. 


86 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


V6'6 


250.  A  blossom  liaving  stamens  and  no  pistil  is  a  Staminaie  or  Male 
flower.  Sometimes  it  is  called  a  Sterile  flower,  not  ajjpropriately,  for  other 
flowers  may  equally  be  sterile.  One  having  pistil  but  uo  stamens  is  a 
Pistillate  or  Female  flower. 

251.  Incomplete  Flowers  are  so  named 
in  contradistiuctiun  to  complete  :  they  want 
either  one  or  both  of  the  floral  envelopes. 
Those  of  Fig.  230  are  incomplete,  having  ca- 
lyx but  no  corolla.  So  is  the  flower  of  Anem- 
one (Fig.  233),  although 
its  calyx  is  colored  like  a 
corolla.  The  flowers  of 
Saururus  or  Lizard's-tail, 

although  perfect,  have  neither  calyx  nor  corolla  (Fig. 
234).     Incomplete  flowers,  accordingly,  are 

Naked  or  Achlanii/deous,  destitute  of  both  floral  en- 
velopes, as  in  Fig.  234,  or 
Apetalous,  wlien  wanting  only  the  corolla.     The  case  of  corolla  present 
and  calyx  wholly  wanting  is  extremely  rare,  although  there  are  seeming 
instances.     In  fact,  a  single  or  simple  perianth   is  taken  to  be  a  calyx, 
■anless  the  absence  or  abortion  of  a  calyx  can  be  made  evident. 

252.  In  contradistinction  to 
regular  and  symmetrical,  very 
many  flowers  are 

Irregular,  that  is,  with  the 
members  of  some  or  all  of  the 
floral  circles  unequal  or  dissim- 
ilar, and 

JJnsymnietrical,  that  is,  when 
the  circles  of  the  flower  or 
some  of  them  differ  in  the  num- 
ber of  their  members.  (Sym- 
metrical and  unsymmetrical  are 
used  in  a  different  sense  in  some 
recent  books,  but  the  older  use 
should  be  adhered  to.)  Want 
of  numerical  symmetry  and 
irregularity  commonly  go  to- 
gether; and  both  are  common. 
Indeed,  few  flowers  are  entirely 


Fig.  233.  Flower  of  Anemone  Pennsylvanica;  apetalous,  hermaphrodite. 
Fig.  234.   Flower  of  Saururus  or  Lizard's-tail;  naked,  but  hermaphrodite. 
Fig.  235.   Flower  of  Mu.stard.    236.  Its  stamens  and  pistil  .separate  and  enlarged. 
Fig.  237.    Flower  of  a  Violet.    238.    Its  calyx  and  corolla  displayed:   the  five 
smaller  parts  are  the  sepals;  the  five  intervening  larger  ones  are  the  petals. 


SECTION   8.]  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TYPE. 


87 


symmetrical  beyond  calyx,  corolla,  and  perhaps  stamens ;  and  probably  no 
irregular  blossoms  are  quite  symmetrical. 

253.   Irregular  and  Unsymmetrical  Flowers  may  therefore  be  illus- 


trated together,  beginning  with  cases 
•whicii  are  comparatively  free  from  other 
complications.  The  blossom  of  Mustard, 
and  of  all  the  very  ii:itural  family  which 
it  represents  (Fig.  235,  236),  is  regular 
but  unsymmetrical  in  the  stamens.  There 
are  four  equal  sepals,  four  equal  petals  ; 
but  six  stamens,  and  only  two  members 
in  the  pistil,  which  for  the  present  may 


Fig.  2'J9.  Flower  of  a  Larkspur.  240.  Its  calyx  and  corolla  displayed ;  the  five 
larger  parts  are  tlie  sepals;  the  four  smaller,  of  two  shapes,  are  the  petals;  the 
place  of  the  fifth  petal  is  vacant.  241.  Diagram  of  the  same;  the  place  for  the 
missing  petal  marked  by  a  dotted  line. 

Fig.  242.  Flower  of  a  Monkshood.  243.  Its  p.arts  disjilayed ;  five  sepals,  the  up- 
per forming  the  hood;  the  two  lateral  alike,  broad  and  flat;  the  two  lower  small. 
The  two  pieces  under  the  hood  represent  the  corolla,  reduced  to  two  odd-shaped 
petals;  in  centre  the  numerous  stamens  and  three  pistils.  244.  Diagram  of  the 
calyx  and  corolla;  the  three  dotted  Hues  in  the  place  of  missing  petals. 


88 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


be  left  out  of  view.  The  want  of  syiiinietry  is  iu  the  stamens.  Tliese  are  ii< 
two  circles,  au  outer  and  an  inner.  The  outer  eircle  consists  of  two  staineus 
only;  the  inner  has  its  proper  number  of  four.  Tiie  flower  of  Violet,  which 
is  ou  the  plan  of  five,  is  symmetrical  iu  calyx,  corolla,  and  stamens,  inas- 
much as  each  of  these  circles  consists  of  five  members ;  but  it  is  conspicu- 
ously irregular  in  the  corolla,  one  of  the  petals  being  very  dilferent  from  the 
rest. 

254.  The  flowers  of  Larkspur,  and  of  Monkshood  or  Aconite,  which  are 
nearly  related,  are  both  strikingly  irregular  in  calyx  and  corolla,  and  con- 
siderably unsymmetrical.  In  Larkspur  (Fig.  239-241)  the  irregular  calyx 
consists  of  five  sepals,  one  of  which,  larger  than  the  rest,  is  prolonged  be- 
hind into  a  large  sac  or  spur;  but  the  corolla  is  of  only  four  petals  (of  two 
shapes),  —  the  fifth,  needed  to  complete  the  symmetry,  being  left  out.  And 
the  Monkshood  (Fig.  242-244)  has  five  very  dissimilar  sepals,  and  a  corolla 
of  only  two  very  small  and  curiously-sliajied  petals, — the  three  nteded  to 
make  up  the  symmetry  being  left  out.  The  stamens  in  both  are  out  of 
symmetry  with  the  ground-])lan,  being  numerous.  So  are  the  pistils,  which 
are  usually  diminished  to  three,  sometimes  to  two  or  to  one. 

255.  Flo-wers  with  Multiplication  of  Parts  are  very  common.     The 

stamens  are  indefinitely  numerous 
in  L'lrkspur  and  in  Monkshood 
(Fig.  242,  243),  while  the  pistils 
are  fewer  than  the  ground-plan 
suggests.      Most   Cactus -flowers 


have  all  the  organs  much  in- 
creased in  number  (Fig.  229), 
and  so  of  the  Water-Lily.  Iu 
Anemone  (Fig.  233)  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  multiplied  while 
tlie  petals  are  left  out.  In  Buttercups  or  Crowfoot,  while  the  sepak  and 
petals  conform  to  the  ground-plan  of  five,  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  indefi- 
nitely multiplied  (Fig.  245). 

256.  Flowers  modified  by  Union  of  Parts,  so  that  these  parts  more 
or  less  lose  the  appearance  of  separate  leaves  or  other  organs  growing  out 
of  the  end  of  the  stem  or  receptacle,  are  extremely  common.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  sucli  union,  namely :  — 

Coalescence  of  parts  of  the  same  circle  by  their  contiguous  margins;  and 
Adnation,  or  the  union  of  adjacent  circles  or  unlike  parts. 

257.  Coalescence  is  not  rare  iu  leaves,  as  in  the  upper  pairs  of  Honey- 
suckles, Fig.  163.  It  may  all  the  more  be  expected  in  the  crowded  circles 
or  whorls  of  flower-leaves.  Datura  or  Stramonium  (Fig.  246)  shows  this 
coalescence  both  in  calyx  and  corolla,  the  five  sepals  and  the  five  petals  be- 
ing thus  united  to  near  their  tips,  each  into  a  tube  or  long  and  narrow  cup. 
These  unions  make  needful  the  followin":  terms  :  — 


Fig.  245.   Flower  of  Ranunculus  bulbosus,  or  Buttercup,  in  .section. 


SECTION  8.]  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TYPE. 


89 


Gamopetalous,  said  of  a  corolla  the  petals  of  which  arc  thus  coalescent 
iuto  oue  body,  whether  only  at  base  or  higher.  The  uniou  may  extend  to 
the  very  summit,  as  in  Morning  Glory  and 
the  liiie  (Fig.  247),  so  that  the  number  of 
petals  in  it  may  not  be  apparent.  The  old 
name  for  this  was  Monopetalous,  but  that 
means  "  oue-petalled ;  "  while  gamopetalous 
means  "  petals  united,"  and  therefore  is  llie 
proper  term. 

Folypetalous  is  the  counterpart  term,  to 
denote  a  corolla  of  distinct,  that  is,  separate 
petals.  As  it  means  "  many  pctallcd,"  it  is 
nut  the  best  possible  name,  but  it  is  the  old 
one  and  in  almost  universal  use. 

Gamosepalous  applies  to  the  calyx  when 
the  sepals  are  in  this  way  united. 

Polysepalous,  to  the  calyx  wlieu  of  sepa- 
rate sepals  or  calyx-leaves. 

258.  Degree  of  union  or  of  separation  in 
descriptive  botany  is  expressed  in  the  same 
way  as  is  the  lobing  of  leaves  (139).  See 
Pig.  249-233,  and  the  explanations. 

259.  A  corolla  when  gamopetalous  com- 
monly shows  a  distinction  (well  marked  in 
Fig.  249-251)  between  a  contracted  tubular 
portion  below,  the  Tube,  and  the  spread- 
ing part  above,  the  Border  or  Limb.  The 
junction  between  tube  and  limb,  or  a  more 
or  less  enlarged  upper  portion  of  the  tube 
between  the  two,  is  the  Throat.  The 
same  is  true  of  tlie  calyx. 

260.  Some  names  are  given  to  partic- 
ular forms  of  the  gamopetalous  corolla, 
applicable  also  to  a  gamosepalous  calyx, 
such  as 

Wheel-shaped,  or  Rotate;  when  spread- 
ing out  at  once,  without  a  tube  or  with 
a  very  short  one,  something  in  the  sliape 
of  a  wheel  or  of  its  diverging  spokes,  Fjg. 
252,  253. 

Salver-shaped,  or  Salver-form  ;  when  a  flat-spreading  border  is  raised  on 


Fig.  246.    Flower  of  Datura  Stranionium  ;  gamosepalous  and  gamopetalous. 
Fig.  247.    Fuinielform  corolla  of  a  commou  Morning  Glory,  detached  from   its 
poly.sepalous  calyx. 


90  FLOWERS.  [section   8. 

a  narrow  tube,  from  which  it  diverges  at  right  angles,  like  the  salver  rep- 


249 


resented  in  old  pictures,  with  a  slender 
handle  beneath.  Fig.  249-251,  255. 

Bell-shaped,  or  Campanulale ;  where 
a  short  and  broad  lube  widens  upward, 
in  the  shape  of  a  bell,  as  in  Fig.  254. 

Funnel-shaped,  or  Funnel-form  ;  grad- 


ually spreading  at  the  summit  of  a  tube  whicli  is  narrow  below,  in  the 


254  255  256  257  25S 

shape  of  a  funnel  or  tunnel,  as  in  the  corolla  of  the  common  Morning 
Glory  (Fig.  247)  and  of  the  Stramonium  (Fig.  246). 

Fig.  248.  Polypetalous  corolla  of  Soapwort,  of  five  petals  with  long  claws  or 
stalk-like  bases. 

Fig.  249.  Flower  of  Standing  Cj^iress  (Gilia  coronopifolia);  ganiopetalous:  the 
tube  answering  to  the  long  claws  in  248,.  except  that  they  are  coalescent:  the  limb 
or  border  (the  spreading  part  above)  is  five-parted,  that  is,  the  petals  not  there 
united  except  at  very  base. 

Fig.  250.  Flower  of  Cypress-vine  (Ipomoea  Quamoclit);  like  preceding,  but  limb 
fice-lihed. 

Fig.  251.    Flower  of  Ipomcea  coccinea;  limb  almost  enftVe. 

Fig.  252.  Wheel-sliaped  or  rotate  and  five-parted  corolla  of  Bittersweet,  Solanum 
Dulcamara.     253.    Wheel-shaped  and  five-lohed  corolla  of  Potato. 

Fig.  254,  Flower  of  a  Campanula  or  Harebell,  with  a  campanulate  or  bell-shaped 
corolla;  25.5,  of  aPlilox,  with  salver-shaped  corolla;  256,  of  Dead-Nettie  (Lainiuni), 
with  labiate  rmge-nt  (nr  gaping)  corolla;  257,  of  Snapdragon,  with  labiate  person- 
ate corolla;  258,  of  Toad-Flax,  with  a  similar  corolla  spurred  at  the  base. 


SECTION   8.]  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TYPE. 


91 


Tabular ;  wlieu  prolonged  into  a  tube,  with,  little  or  no  spreading  at  the 
border,  as  iu  the  corolla  of  the  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  the  calyx  of  Stra- 
luoniuni  (Fig.  246),  etc. 

261.  Although  sepals  and  petals  are  usually  all  blade  or  lamina  (123), 
like  a  sessile  leaf,  yet  they  may  have  a  contracted  and  stalk-like  base,  an- 
swering to  petiole.  This 
is  called  its  Cl.vw,  iu 
Latiu  Unguis.  Unguicu- 
late  petals  are  universal 
and  strongly  marked  in 
the  Pink  tribe,  as  in 
Soapwort  (Fig.  248). 

262.  Such  petals,  and 
various  others,  may  have 
259  260  an  outgrowth  of  the  in- 

ner face  into  an  appendage  or  fringe,  as  in  Soapwort,  and  iu  Silene  (Fig. 
259),  where  it  is  at  the  junction  of 
claw  and  blade.  This  is  called  a 
Crown,  or  Corona.  In  Passion- 
flowers (Fig.  260)  the  crown  consists 
of  numerous  threads  on  the  base  of 
each  petal. 

263.  Irregular  Flowers  may  be 
polypetalous,  or  nearly  so,  as  in  the 
papilionaceous  corolla;  but  most  of 
them  are  irregular  through  coales- 
cence, which  often  much  disguises 
the  numerical  symmetry  also.  As 
affecting  the  corolla  the  following 
forms  have  received  particular  names : 

264,  Papilionaceous  Corolla, 
Fig.  261,  262.  This  is  polypetalous, 
except  that  two  of  the  petals  cohere, 
usually  but  slightly.  It  belongs  only 
to  the  Leguminous  or  Pulse  family. 
The  name  means  butterfly-like ;  but 
the  likeness  is  hardly  obvious.  The 
names  of  the  five  petals  of  the 
papilionaceojis  corolla  are  curiously 
incongruous.     They  are. 


Fig.  259.    Unguicxilate  (clawed)  petal  of  a  Silene;  with  a  two-parted  crown. 
Fig.  260.   A  small  Passion-flower,  with  crown  of  .slender  threads. 
Fig,  261.   Front  view  of  a  papilionaceous  corolla.    262.    The  parts  of  the  same, 
displayed :  s,  Standard,  or  Vexillum ;  w,  Wings,  or  Alae ;  k.  Keel,  or  Carina. 


92 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


Tlie  Standard  or  Banner  {yexilluni),  the  large  upper  petal  which  is 

external  iu  tlie  bud  and  wrapped  around  the  others. 

The  Wings  {AUe),  the  pair  of  side  petals,  oi'  quite  different  shape  from 

the  standard. 

The  Kkel  {Canna),  the  two  lower  and  usuall.y  smallest  petals ;  these  are 

lightly  coalescent  into  a  body  which  bears  some  likeness,  not  to  the  keel, 

but  to  the  prow  of  a  boat ;  and  this  encloses  the  stamens  and  pistil.     A 

Pea-blossom  is  a  typical  example;  the  present  illustration  is  from  a  species 

of  Locust,  Robinia  hispida. 

265.  Labiate  Corolla  (Fig.  256-25S),  which  would  more  properly  have 
been  called  Bilabiate,  that  is,  two-lipped. 
This  is  a  common  form  of  gamopetalous  co- 
rolla ;  and  the  calyx  is  often  bilabiate  also. 
These  flowers  are  all  on  the  plan  of  five ; 
and  the  irregularity  in  the  corolla  is  owing 
to  unequal  union  of  the  petals  as  well  as  to 
diversity  of  form.  The  two  petals  of  the 
upper  or  posterior  side  of  the  flower  unite 
with  each  other  higher  up  than  with  the 
lateral  petals  (iu  Fig.  256,  quite  to  tlie  top), 
forming  the  Upper  lip:  the  lateral  and  the 
lower  similarly  unite  to  form  the  Loicer  lip. 
The  single  notch  which  is  generally  found 
at  the  summit  of  the  upper  lip,  and  the  two 
notches  of  the  lower  lip,  or  in  otlier  words 
the  two  lobes  of  the  upper  and  the  three  of 
the  lower  lip,  reveal  the  real  composition. 
So  also  docs  the  alternation  of  these  five 
parts  with  those  of  the  calyx  outside.  When 
the  calyx  is  also  bilabiate,  as  iu  the  Sage, 
this  alternation  gives  three  lobes  or  sepals 
to  the  upper  and  two  to  the  lower  lip.  Two 
forms  of  the  labiate  corolla  hr.ve  been  desig- 
nated, viz. :  — 

Ringent  or  Gaping,  when  the  orifice  is 
wide  open,  as  in  F'ig.  256. 

Personate  or  Masked,  when  a  protube- 
rance or  intrusion  of  the  base  of  the  lower 
lip  (called  a  Palate)  projects  over  or  closes 

the  orifice,  as  in  Snapdragon  and  Toad-Flax,  Fig.  257,  258. 

Fig.  263.  Corolla  of  a  purple  Gerardia  laid  open,  showing  the  four  stamens ;  the 
cross  shows  where  the  fifth  stamen  would  be,  if  present. 

Fig.  264.  Corolla,  laid  open,  and  stamens  of  Pentstemon  grandiflorus,  with  a 
sterile  filament  in  the  place  of  the  fifth  .stamen,  and  representing  it. 

Fig.  265.  Corolla  of  Catalpa  laid  open,  displaying  two  good  stamens  and  three 
abortive  ones  or  vestiges. 


SECTION   8.]  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  TYPE, 


93 


266.  There  are  all  gradations  between  labiate  and  regular  corollas.  In 
those  of  Gerardia,  of  some  species  of  Peutsteuion,  and  of  Catalpa  (Fig. 
"263-265),  the  labiate  character  is  slight,  but  is  manifest  enclose  inspection. 
In  almost  all  such  flowers  the  plan  of  five,  which,  is  obvious  or  ascertain- 
able in  the  calyx  and  corolla,  is  obscured  in  the  stamens  by  the  abortion  or 
suppression  of  one  or  three  of  their  number. 

'iiSJ.  Ligulate  Corolla.  The  ligulate  or  Strap-shaped  corolla  mainly 
belongs   to  the  family  of  Composite,  in  which  numerous  small  flowers  are 


gathered  into  a  head,  within  an  involucre  that  imitates  a  calyx.  It  is  best 
exemplilied  in  the  Dandelion  and  in  Chiccory  (Fig.  266).  Each  one  of 
these  straps  or  Ligules,  looking  like  so  many  petals,  is  the  corolla  of  a  dis- 


tinct flower :  the  base  is  a  short  tube,  which  opens  out  into  the  ligule :  the 
five  minute  teeth  at  the  end  indicate  the  number  of  constituent  petals.  So 
this  is  a  kind  of  gamopetalous  corolla,  whicli  is  open  along  one  side  nearly 

Fig.  2ti6.   Two  flower-lieads  of  Chiccory. 

Fig.  267.   One  of  them  half  cut  away,  better  showing  some  of  the  flowers. 


94 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


to  the  base,  and  outspread.  The  nature  of  sucli  a  corolla  (and  of  tlic  sta- 
mens also,  to  l)c  cxi)lauicd  in  the  next  section)  is  illustrated  by  the  flowei 
of  a  Lobelia,  Fig.  2S5.  • 

268.    In  Asters,  Daisies,  Sunflower,  Coreopsis  (Fig.  2G8),  and  the  like, 
only  the  marginal  (or  Raj/)  corollas  are  ligulate ;  the  rest  (those  of  the 

Disk)  are  regularly  gamopetalous, 
tubular,  and  tive-lobed  at  summit; 
/^y  but  they  are  small  and  individually 
/n  inconspicuous,  only  the  rajf-Jlowers 
making  a  show.      In  fact,  those  of 
Coreopsis   and    of   Sunflower  are 
simply  for  show,  these  ray-flowers 
being  not  only  sterile,  but  neutral, 
that    is,    having  neither  stamens 
nor  pistil.    But  in  Asters,  Daisies, 
Golden-rods,  and  the  like,  these  ray-flowers  are  pistillate  and  fertile,  serving 

6 


therefore  for  seed-bearing  as  well  as  for  show.    Let  it  not  be  supposed  that 
the  show  is  useless.     See  Section  XIIL 

269.  Adnation,  or  Consolidation,  is  the  union  of  the  members  of  parts 
belonging  to  ditierent  circles  of  the  flower  (256).  It  is  of  course  under- 
stood that  in  this  (as  likewise  in  coalescence)  the  parts  are  not  formed  aud 
then  conjoined,  but  are  produced  in  union.  They  are  l)orn  united,  as  the 
term  adnate  implies.  To  illustrate  this  kind  of  union,  take  the  accompany- 
ing series  of  flowers  (Fig.  270-274),  shown  in  vertical  section.  In  the 
first.  Fig.  270,  Flax-flower,  there  is  no  adnation;  sepals,  petals,  and  sta- 
mens, Sivefree  as  well  as  distinct,  being  separately  borne  on  the  receptacle, 
one  circle  within  or  above  the  next ;  only  the  five  pistils  liave  their  ovaries 
coalescent.  In  Fig.  271,  a  Cherry-flower,  the  ])etals  and  stamens  are  borne 
on  the  throat  of  the  calyx-tube ;  that  is,  the  sepals  are  coalescent  into  a  cup. 
and  the  petals  and  stamens  are  adnate  to  the  inner  face  of  this;  in  other 

Fig.  268.    Head  of  flowers  of  a  Coreniisis,  divided  lengthwise. 

Fig.  269.  A  slice  of  the  preceding  more  enlarged,  with  one  tuhular  perfect  flower 
(")  left  standing  on  the  receptacle,  with  its  hractlet  or  chaff  (h),  one  lignlate  and 
nentral  ray  flower  (ct),  and  part  of  another;  dd,  section  of  bracts  or  leaves  of  the 
involucre. 


SECTION   8.]  MODIFICATIONS   OF   THE  TYPE. 


95 


words,  tlie  sepals,  petals,  and  stamens  are  all  consolidated  up  to  a  certain 
lieiglit.  In  Fig.  272,  a  Purslane-flower,  the  same  parts  are  aduate  to  or 
consolidated  with  the  ovary  up  to 
its  middle.  In  Fig.  273,  a  Haw- 
thorn-flower, the  consolidation  has 
extended  over  the  whole  ovary  ; 
and  petals  and  stamens  are  aduate 
to  the  calyx  still  further.  In  Fig. 
274,  a  Cranberry-blossom,  it  is  the 
same  except  that  all  the  parts  are 
free  at  the  same  height;  all  seem 
to  arise  from  the  top  of  the  ovary. 

270.  In  botanical  description, 
to  express  tersely  such  diiferences 
in  the  relation  of  these  organs  to 
the  pistil,  they  are  said  to  be 

Hypogynijus  (i.  e.  under  the  pis- 
til) vv'hen  they  are  ally)r^,  that  is, 
not  aduate  to  pistil  nor  connate 
with  each  other,  as  in  Fig.  270. 

Ferigynous  (around  the  pistil) 
when  connate  with  each  other, 
that  is,  when  petals  and  stamens 
are  inserted  or  borne  on  the  calyx, 
whether  as  in  Cherry -flowers  (Fig. 
271)  they  are  free  from  the  pistil,  ^ 
or  as  in  Purslane  and  Hawthorn 
(Fig.  272,  273)  they  are  also  ad- 
uate below  to  the  ovary. 

Epigynous  (on  the  ovary)  when 
so  adnate  that  all  these  parts  ap- 
pear to   arise  from  the  very  summit  of  the  s)vary,  as  in  Fig.  274. 
last  two  terms  are  not  very  definitely  distinguished. 

271.  Another  and  a  simpler  form  of  expression  is  to  describe  parts  of 
the  flower  as  being 

Free,  when  not  united  with  or  inserted  upon  other  parts. 

Distinct,  when  parts  of  the  same  kind  are  not  united.  This  term  is  the 
counterpart  of  coalescent,  as  free  is  the  counterpart  of  adnate.  Many 
writers  use  the  term  "  free  "  indiscriminately  for  both  ;  but  it  is  better  to 
distinguish  them. 


The 


Fig.  270.  Flax-flower  in  section;  the  parts  all  free, — hypogyuous. 

Fig.  271.  Cherry-flower  in  section ;  petals  and  stamens  adnate  to  tube  of  calyx,  — 
perigynous. 

Fig.  272.  Purslane-flower  in  section;  calyx,  petals,  stamens,  all  adnate  to  lowei 
half  of  ovary,  —  perigyuoua. 


FLOWERS. 


[section  8. 


Connate  is  a  term  common  for  cither  not  free  or  i>ot  distinct,  that  is,  for 
parts  united  congenitally,  wlictlier  of  same  or  of  different  kinds. 
Adnate,  as  properly  used,  relates  to  tlie  union  of  dissimilar  jjarts. 

272.  lu  still  another  form  of  ex- 
pression, the  terms  superior  and. 
inferior  have  been  much  used  in 
the  sense  of  above  and  below. 

Superior  is  said  of  the  ovary  of 
Flax-tlower,  Cherry,  etc.,  because 
above  the  other  parts ;  it  is  equiv- 
alent to  "ovary  free."  Or  it  is 
said  of  the  calyx,  etc.,  when  above 
the  ovary,  as  in  Fig.  273-275. 

Inferior,  when  applied  to  the 
ovary,  means  the  same  as  "  calyx 
adnate ; "  when  appUed  to  the  flo- 
ral envelopes,  it  means  that  they 
are  free. 

273.  Position  of  Flower  or 
of  its  Parts.  The  terms  superior 
and  inferior,  or  upper  and  lower, 
are  also  used  to  indicate  the  relative 
position  of  the  parts  of  a  flower  in 

274  reference  to  the  axis  of  inflores- 

cence. An  axillary  flower  stands  between  the  bract  or  leaf  which  sub- 
tends it  and  the  axis  or  stem  which  bears  this  bract 
or  leaf.  This  is  represented  in 
sectional  diagrams  (as  in  Fi^.  275, 
276)  by  a  transverse  line  for  the 
bract,  and  a  small  circle  for  the  axis 
of  inflorescence.  Now  the  side  of 
the  blossom  which  faces  the  bract 
is  the 

Anterior,  or  Inferior,  or  Lower  side ; 
while  the  side  next  the  axis  is  the 
Posterior,  or  Superior,  or  Upper  side  of  the  flower. 
274.    So,  in  the  labiate  corolla  (Fig.  2.5(5-258),  the  lip  which  is  composed 
of  three  of  the  five  petals  is  tlie  anterior,  or  inferior,  or  lower  lip;  the  other 
is  the  posterior,  or  superior.,  or  upper  lip. 

Fig.  273.  Hawthorn-blossom  in  section ;  parts  adnate  to  whole  face  of  ovary, 
and  with  each  other  beyond ;  another  grade  of  perigynous. 

Fig.  274.   Cranberry-blossom  in  section  ;  parts  epigynous. 

VlG.  275.  Diagram  of  papilionaceous  flower  (Robinia,  Fig.  261),  with  bract  be- 
low; axis  of  inflorescence  above. 

FiQ.  276.  Diagram  of  Violet-flower;  showing  the  relation  of  parts  to  liract  and 
ads. 


SECTION  8.' 


ARRANGEMENTS  IN  THE  BUD. 


97 


275.  In  Violets  (Fig.  238,  276),  the  odd  sepal  is  posterior  (next  the 
axis)  ;  the  odd  petal  is  iherel'ore  anterior,  or  next  the  subtending  leaf.  In 
the  papilionaceous  flower  (Fig.  261,  and  diagram.  Fig.  275),  the  odd  sepal  is 
anterior,  and  so  two  sepals  are  posterior;  consequently,  by  the  alternation, 
tiie  odd  petal  (the  standard)  is  posterior  or  upper,  and  the  two  petals  form- 
ing  the  keel  are  anterior  or  lower. 


<^^^^^ 


§  5.     ARRANGEMENT  OF  PARTS  IN  THE  BUD. 

276.  ^Estivation  was  the  fanciful  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  denote 
the  disposition  of  the  parts,  especially  the  leaves  of  the  flower,  before  An- 
theds,  i.  e.  before  the  blossom  opens.  Prcefloration,  a  better  term,  is  some- 
times used.  This  is  of  im|)ortance  in  distniguishing  different  families  or 
genera  of  plants,  being  generally  uniform  in  each.  The  aestivation  is  best 
seen  by  making  a  slice  across  the  flower-bud ;  and  it  may  be  expressed  in 
diagrams,  as  in  the  accompanying  figures. 

277.  The  pieces  of  the  calyx  or  the  corolla  either  overlap  each  other  in 
the  bud,  or  they  do  not.     When  tliey  do  not  overlap,  the  aestivation  is 

Vulcate,  when  the  pieces  meet  each  other  by  tiieir 
abrupt  edges,  without  any  infolding  or  overlapping; 
as  the  calyx  of  the  Linden  or  Bass  wood  (Fig.  277). 
Imluplicate,  which  is  valvate  with  the  margins  of 
each  piece  projecting  inwards,  as  in  the  calyx  of  a 
common  Virgin's-bower,  Fig.  278,  or 

Iiiroliife,  which  is  the  same  but  I  ho  margins  rolled 
inward,  as  in  most  of  the  large-flowered  species  of 
Clematis,  Fig.  279. 

Redujdicate,  a  rarer  modification  of  valvate,  is  similar  but  with  margins 
projecting  outward. 

Open,  the  parts  not  touching  in  the  bud,  as 
the  calyx  of  Mignonette. 

278.    When  the  pieces  overlap  in  the  bud,  it 
is  in  one  of  two  ways ;  either  every  piece  has 
one  edge  in  and  one  edge  out,  or  some  pieces 
are  wholly  outside  and  others  wholly  inside.    In 
the  first  case  the  aestivation  is 

Convolute,  also  naiiied  Contorted  or  Ttcided,  as  in  Fig.  280,  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  corolla  very  strongly  thus  convolute  or  rolled  up  together,  and  in 
the  corolla  of  a  Flax-flower  (Fig.  281),  where  the  petals  only  moderately 
overlap  in  1  his  way.     Here  one  edge  of  every  petal  covers  the  next  before 


Til 


Fig.  277.  Diagram  of  a  flower  of  Linden,  showing  the  calyx  valvate  and  corolla 
imbricate  in  the  bud,  etc. 

Fig.  278.  Valvate-induplicate  aestivation  of  caly.x:  of  common  Virgin's-bower. 
Fig.  279.   Valvate-involnte  a'stivation  of  same  iu  Vine-bower,  Clematis  Vitialla. 


98 


STAMENS. 


[SECTION   9. 


it,  while  its  other  edge  is  covered  by  the  next  behind  it.     The  oilier  mode 
is  the 

Imbricate  or  Imbricatpd,  in  Aviiicli  tlie  outer  parts  cover  or  overlap  the 
inner  so  as  to  "break  joints,"  like  tiles 
or  shingles  on  a  roof ;  whence  the  name. 
When  the  parts  ave  three,  the  first  or  jl 
outermost  is  wholly  external,  the  third 
wholly  internal,  the  second  has  one 
margin  covered  by  the  first  while  the 
other  overlaps  the  third  or  innermost 
piece :  this  is  the  arrangement  of  alternate  three- 
ranked  leaves  (187).  When  there  are  five  pieces,  as  in  the  corolla  of  Fig. 
225,  and  calyx  of  Fig.  281,  as  also  of  Fig.  241,  276,  two  are  external, 
two  are  internal,  and  one  (the  third  in  the  spiral)  has  one  edge  covered 
by  the  outermost,  while  its  other  edge  covers  the  in- 
nermost; which  is  just  the  five-ranked  arrangement  of 
alternate  leaves  (1S8).  When  the  pieces  are  four,  two 
arc  outer  and  two  are  inner;  which  answers  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  opposite  leaves. 

279.  The  imbricate  and  the  convolute  modes  some- 
times vary  one  into  the  other,  especially  in  the  corolla. 

?80.  In  a  gamopetalous  corolla  or  gamosepalous  calyx, 
the  shape  of  the  tube  in  the  bud  may  sometimes  be  notice- 
able.    It  may  be 

Plicate  or  Plaited,  that  is,  folded  lengthwise ;  and  the 
plaits  may  either  be  turned  outwards,  forming  projecting 
ridges,  as  in  the  corolla  of  Campanula;  or  turned  in- 
wards, as  in  that  of  Gentian  Belladonna ;  or 

Supervolute,  when  the  plaits  are  convolutely  wrapped 
round  each  other,  as  in  the  corolla  of  Morning  Glory  and  of  Stramonium, 
Fi^.  282. 


Section   IX.     STAMENS   IN  PARTICULAR. 

281.  Androecium  is  a  technical  name  for  the  staminate  system  of  a 
flower  (that  is,  for  the  stamens  taken  together),  which  it  is  sometimes  con- 
venient to  use.  The  preceding  section  has  dealt  with  modifications  of  the 
flower  pertaining  mainly  to  calyx  and  corolla.  Those  relating  to  the  sta- 
mens are  now  to  be  indicated.     First  as  to 


Fig.  280.   Convolute  aestivation,  as  in  the  corolla-lobes  of  Oleander. 

Fio.  281.  Diagram  of  a  Fla.x-flower ;  calyx  imbricated  and  corolla  convolute  in 
the  bud. 

Fig.  282.  Upper  part  of  corolla  of  Datura  Stramonium  in  the  bud  ;  and  below 
a  section  showing  the  convolution  of  the  plaits. 


SECTION   9.] 


STAMENS. 


99 


282.   Insertion,  or  place  of  attaclimeut.     The  stamens  usually  go  with 
the  petals.     Not  rarely  they  are  at  base 

Epipetalous,  that  is,  inserted 
oil  (or  adiiate  to)  tlie  corolla,  as 
in  Fig.  283.  When  free  from 
the  corolla,  they  may  be 

Hi/pogi/iious,  inserted  on  the 
receptacle  under  the  pistil  or 
gyncecium. 

Periffi/noiis,  inserted  on  the 
calyx,  that  is,  with  the  lower 
part  of  filament  aduate  to  the 
culyx-tnbe.  283 

Epigynous,  borne  apparently  on  the  top  of  the  ovary ;  all  which  is  ex- 
plained in  Fig.  270-274. 

Gynandrous  is  another  term  relating  to  insertion  of  rarer  occurrence, 
that  is,  where  the  stamens  are 
inserted  on  (in  other  words, 
adnate  to)  the  style,  as  in 
Lady's  Shpper  (Fig.  284),  and  ,,. 
in  the  Orchis  family  generally. 
283.  In  Relation  to  each 
Other,  stamens  are  more  com- 
monly 

Bktbict,  that  is,  without  any 
union  with  each  other.     But 
when    united,  the    following 
technical  terms   of  long   use   285 
indicate  tlieir  modes  of  mutual  connection  :  — 

Monadelphoiis  (from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  "in  one  brotherhood"), 
•when  united  by  tlieir  filaments  into  one  set,  usually  into  a  ring  or  cup 
below,  or  into  a  tube,  as  in  the  Mallow  Family  (Fig.  286),  the  Passion- 
flower (Fig.  260),  the  Lupine  (Fig.  287),  and  in  Lobelia  (Fig,  285). 

Biadelphous  (meaning  in  two  brotherhoods),  when  united  by  the  fila- 
ments into  two  sets,  as  in  the  Pea  and  most  of  its  near  relatives  (Fig.  288), 
usually  nine  in  one  set,  and  one  in  the  other. 

Triadelphous  {\h\'ee  brotherhoods),  when  the  filaments  are  united  in  three 
sets  or  clusters,  as  in  most  species  of  Hypericum. 


Fig.  283.  Corolla  of  Morning  Glory  laid  open,  to  .show  the  five  stamens  inserted 
on  it,  near  the  base. 

Fig.  284.  Style  of  a  Lady's  Slipper  (Cypripedium),  and  stamens  united  with  it ; 
a,  a,  the  anthers  of  the  two  good  stamens  ;  st,  an  abortive  stamen,  what  should 
be  its  antlier  cliaiiged  into  a  petal-like  body  ;  stig,  the  stigma. 

Fig.  285.  Flower  of  Lobelia  cardiualis,  Cardinal  flower;  corolla  making  approach 
to  the  ligulate  form;  filaments  (st)  monadelphou.s,  and  anthers  (a)  syngenesious. 


100 


STAMENS. 


[section  9. 


286 


288 


PentuiMphous  (five  hrothorliouds),  wlicii  in  five  sets,  as  m  some  species 
of  Ily])ericiuii  and  ui  Amerieaii  Liudeu  (Fig.  277,  289). 

Polyadelphous  (many  or  several 
brotlierhouds)  is  the  term  generally 
employed  when  these  sets  are  several, 
or  even  more  than  two,  and  tlic  par- 
ticular number  is  left  unspecified. 
Tlicsc  terms  all  relate  to  tlie  fila- 
ments. 

Syngenesious  is  the  term  to  denote 
that  stamens  have  their  anthers  united, 
coalcsccut  into  a  ring  or  tube ;  as  in 
Lobelia  (FiJ,^  285),  in  Violets,  and  in 
all  of  the  great  family  of  Composilae. 

284.  Their  Number  in  a  flower  is  commonly  expressed  directly,  but 
sometimes  adjectively,  by  a  series  of  terms  which  were  the  name  of  classes 
ill  Ihe  LiniiEean  artificial  system,  of  which  the  following  names,  as  also  the 
preceding,  are  a  suivival  -.  — 

Momndrous,  i.  e.  solitary-stamened,  when  the  flower  has  only  one  stamen, 

Dia)idrotis,  when  it  has  two  stamens  only, 

Tfiandrous,  when  it  has  three 
stamens, 

Tetrandrous,  wlien  it  has  four 
stamens, 

Pentandroiis,  when  it  has 
five  stamens, 

Hexandrous,  when  with  six 
stamens,  and  so  on  to 

Polyandrous,  when  it  has 
many  stamens,  or  more  than  a  dozen. 

285.  For  which  terms,  see  the  Glossary, 
prefixed  to  -andria  (from  the  Greek),  which  Linnfens  used  for  andrcpcium, 
and  are  made  into  an  English  adjective,  -androHs.  Two  other  terms,  of 
same  origin,  designate  particular  cases  of  number  (four  or  six)  in  con- 
nection with  unequal  length.     Namely,  the  stamens  are 

Didynamous,  wlien,  being  only  four,  they  form  two  pairs,  one  pair  longer 
than  the  other,  as  in  the  Trumpet  Creeper,  in  Gerardia  (Fig.  203),  etc. 

Fig.  286.  Flower  of  a  l\I;illo\v,  witli  calyx  and  corolla  '^nt  away  ;  showing  niona- 
delplinus  .stamens. 

Fig.  287.  Monadelphous  .stamens  of  Lupine.  288.  Diadelphous  stamens  (9  and  1) 
of  a  l'ea-lilossom. 

Fig.  289.  One  of  the  five  stanien-chi.sters  of  the  flower  of  American  Linden,  with 
accompanying  scale.  The  five  clusters  are  .shown  in  .section  in  the  diairrani  of  this 
flower,  Fig.  277. 

Flo.  2!t0.  Five  .syngenesions  stamens  of  a  Coreopsis.  291.  Same,  with  tube  laid 
open  aud  displayed. 


They  are  all  Greek  numerals 


SECTION   9. J 


ANtHERS. 


101 


Tetradynamous^  wlien,  being  ouly  six,  iour  of  tlieiii  surpass  the  other 
two,  as  in  the  Musturd-llower  uudali  the  Cruciferous  family,  I'ig.  235. 

28G.  The  Filament  is  a  kiud  of  stalk  to  the  auther,  couiiuouly  slender 
or  thread-like :  it  is  to  the  auther  nearly  what  the  petiole  is  to  tlie  blade  of 
a  leaf.  Therefore  it  is  not  an  essential  part.  As  a  leaf  may  be  without 
a  stalk,  so  the  anther  may  be  Sennile,  or  without  a  filament. 

287.  The  Anther  is  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen.  It  is  a  sort  of 
case,  filled  with  a  One  powder,  the  Pollen,  which  serves  to  fertilize  the  pis- 
til, so  that  it  may  perfect  seeds.     The  anther  is  said  to  be 

I/i/iale  (as  in  Fig.  292),  when  it  is  attached  by  its  base  to  the  very  apex 
of  the  filament,  turning  neither  inward  nor  outward  ; 

Achiate  (as  in  Fig.  293),  wlien  attached 
as  it  were  by  one  face,  usually  for  its  whole 
length,  to  the  side  of  a  continuation  of  the 
filament ;  and 

Versatile  (as  in  Fig.  291),  when  fixed  by 
or  near  its  middle  only  to  the  very  point  of 
the  filament,  so  as  to  swing  loosely,  as  in 
the  Lily,  in  Grasses,  etc.  Versatile  or  ad- 
uate  anthers  are 

Introrse,  or  Incumbent,  when  facing  in- 
ward, that  is,  toward  the  centre  of  the  flow- 
er, as  in  Magnolia,  Water-Lily,  etc. 

Extrorse,  when  facing  outwardly,  as  in  the  Tulip-tree. 

288.  Rarely  does  a  stamen  bear  any  resemblance  to  a  leaf, 
or  even  to  a  petal  or  flower-leaf.  Nevertheless,  the  botanist's 
idea  of  a  stamen  is  that  it  answers  to  a  leaf  developed  in  a 
peculiar  form  and  for  a  special  purpose.  In  the  filament  he 
sees  tiie  stalk  of  the  leaf;  in  the  anther,  the  blade.  Tiie 
blade  of  a  leaf  consists  of  two  similar  sides ;  so  the  anther 
consists  of  two  Lobes  or  Cells,  one  answering  to  the  left,  the 
other  to  the  right,  side  of  the  blade.  The  two  lobes  are  often 
connected  by  a  prolongation  of  the  filament,  which  answers 
to  the  midrib  of  a  leaf;  this  is  called  the  Connective.  This 
is  conspicuous  in  Fig.  292,  where  the  connective  is  so  broad 
tliat  it  separates  the  two  cells  of  the  anther  to  some  distance. 

289.  A  simple  conception  of  the  morphological  relation  of 
an  anther  to  a  leaf  is  given  in  Fig.  295,  an  ideal  figure,  the  lower  part  rep- 
resenting a  stamen  with  the  top  of  its  anther  cut  away ;  the  upper,  the 
corresponding  upper  part  of  a  leaf. 

Fig.  292.  Stamen  of  IsopjTum,  with  innate  anther.  293.  Of  Tulip-tree,  with 
ailnate  (and  extrorse)  anther.     294.    Of  Evening  Primro.se,  with  versatile  anther. 

Fig.  295.  Diagram  of  tlie  lower  part  of  an  anther,  cut  across  ahove,  and  the  upper 
part  of  a  leaf,  to  .show  how  tlie  one  answers  to  the  other;  the  filament  to  petiole, 
the  connective  to  midrib;  the  two  cells  to  the  right  and  left  halves  of  the  blade. 


102 


STAMENS. 


[section  9. 


290.  So  aatliers  are  generally  two-celled.  But  as  the  pollen  begius  to 
form  in  two  parts  of  each  cell  (the  anterior  and  the  posterior),  sometimes 
these  two  strata  are  not  confluent,  and  the  anther  even  at  maturity  may  be 
four-celled,  as  in  Moonseed  (Fig.  296)  ;  or  rather,  in  that  case  (the  word 

cell  bt;ing  used  for  each  lateral  half  of  the 
organ),  it  is  two-celled,  but  the  cells  bilocel- 
lale. 

291.  But  anthers  may  become  one-celled, 
aud  that  either  by  eoufluence  or  by  suppres- 
sion. 

292.  By  confluence,  when  the  two  cells 
run  together  into  one,  as  they  nearly  do  in 
most  species  of  Pentstemon  (Fig.  297),  more 
so  in  Monarda  (Fig.  300j,  aud  completely 

in  the  Mallow  (Fig.  29S)  and  all  the  Mallow  family. 


Fig.  296.  Stamen  of  Moonseed,  with  anther  cut  acro.ss;  tins  4-celled,  or  rather  4- 
locellate. 

Fia.  297.  Stamen  of  Pentstemon  pubescens ;  the  two  anther-cells  diverging,  aud 
almost  confluent. 

Fig.  298.  Stamen  of  Mallow  ;  the  anther  supposed  to  answer  to  that  of  Fig.  297, 
but  the  cells  completely  confluent  into  one. 

Fig.  299.  Stamen  of  Globe  Amaranth  ;  very  short  filament  bearing  a  single 
anther-cell;  it  is  open  from  top  to  bottom,  showing  the  pollen  within. 

Fig.  300-305.  Stamens  of  several  plants  of  the  Labiate  or  Mint  Family.  Fig. 
300.  Of  a  Monarda  :  the  two  anther-cells  with  bases  divergent  so  that  they  are 
transverse  to  the  filament,  and  their  contiguous  tips  confluent,  so  as  to  form  one 
cell  opening  by  a  continuous  line.  Fig.  301.  Of  a  Calamintlia:  tlie  broad  connec- 
tive separating  the  two  cells.  FiG.  302.  Of  a  Sage  (Salvia  Texana  ;  with  long  and 
slender  connective  resembling  forks  of  the  filament,  one  bearing  a  good  anther-cell ; 
the  other  an  abortive  or  poor  one.  Fig.  303.  Another  Sage  (S.  coccinea),  with 
connective  longer  and  more  thread-shaped,  the  lower  fork  having  its  anther-cell 
wholly  wantnig.  FiG.  304.  Of  a  White  Sage,  Audibertia  grandiflnra;  the  lower 
fork  of  connective  a  mere  vesticre.  Fig.  30.').  Of  another  White  Sage  (A.  stachy- 
oides),  the  lower  fork  of  connective  suppressed. 


oECTION  9.] 


POLLEN. 


103 


293.  By  suppressiou  iu  certain  cases  the  anther  may  be  reduced  to  one 
cell  or  halved.  Iu  Globe  Amaranth  (Fig.  299)  there  is  a  single  cell  without 
vestige  of  any  other.  Difiereut  species  of  Sage  and  of  the  White  Sages  of 
California  show  various  grades  of  abortion  of  one  of  the  anther-cells,  along 
with  a  singular  lengthening  of  the  connective  (Fig.  302-305). 

294.  The  splitting  open  of  an  anther  for  the  discharge  of  its  pollen  is 
termed  its  Dehiscence. 

295.  As  the  figures  show,  this  is  commonly  by  a  line  along  the  whole 
lengtli    of  each   cell,    either  lateral  or, 

when  the  anthers  are  extrorse,  often 
along  the  outer  face,  and  when  introrse, 
along  the  inner  face  of  each  cell.  Some- 
times the  opening  is  only  by  a  chink,  hole, 
or  pore  at  the  top,  as  in  the  Azalea,  Py- 
rola  (Fig.  307),  etc. ;  sometimes  a  part  of 
the  face  separates  as  a  sort  of  trap-door 
(or  valve),  hinged  at  the  top,  and  open- 
ing to  allow  the  escape  of  the  pollen, 
as  in  the  Sassafras,  Spice-bush,  and  Barberry  (Fig.  308). 

296.  Pollen.  This  is  the  powdery  matter,  commonly  of  a  yellow  color, 
which  fills  the  cells  of  the  anther,  and  is  discharged  during  blossoming. 


309  310  311  312  313 

after  which  the  stamens  generally  fall  or  wither  away.  Under  the  micro- 
scope it  is  found  to  consist  of  grains,  usually  round  or  oval,  and  all  alike 
in  the  same  species,  but  very  different  in  different  plants.     So  that  the 


314  315  316  317 

plant  may  sometimes  be  recognized  from  the  pollen  alone, 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures. 


318 
Several  forms 


Fig.  306.  Stamen  with  the  usual  dehiscence  of  anther  down  the  side  of  each  cell. 

Fig.  307.  Stamen  of  Pyrola;  cells  opening  by  a  terminal  hole. 

Fig.  308.   Stamen  of  Barberry ;  cells  of  anther  each  opening  by  an  uplifted  valve. 

Fig.  309.  Magnified  pollen  of  a  Lily,  smooth  and  oval;  310,  of  Echinocystis, 
grooved  lengthwise;  311,  of  Sicyos,  with  bristly  points  and  smooth  bands;  312,  of 
Musk  Plant  (Mimuhis),  with  spiral  grooves;  313,  of  Succory,  twelve-sided  and 
dotted. 

Fig.  314.  Magnified  pollen  of  Hibiscus  and  other  Mallow-plants,  beset  with 
prickly  projections  ;  315,  of  Circsea,  with  angles  bearing  little  lobes;  316,  of  Even- 


104 


STAMENS. 


[SECTION   9. 


297.  An  ordinary  polleu-graiu  lias  two  coats ;  the  outer  coat  tliickisb, 
but  weak,  aud  frequently  adorned  with  lines  or  bands,  or  studded  with 
points ;  the  inner  coat  is  extremely  thin  and  delicate,  but  extensible,  and 
its  cavity  when  fresh  contains  a  thickish  protoplasmic  Huid,  often  rendered 
turbid  by  an  immense  number  of  minute  particles  that  float  in  it.  As  the 
pollen  matures  this  fluid  usually  dries  up,  but  the  protoplasm  does  not  lose 
its  vitality.  When  the  grain  is  wetted  it  absorbs  water,  swells  up,  aud  is 
apt  to  burst,  discharging  the  contents.  Bui  when  weak 
syrup  is  used  it  absorbs  this  slowly,  aud  the  tough  in- 
ner coat  will  sometimes  break  througii  the  outer  aud 
begin  a  kind  of  growth,  like  that  which  takes  place  when 
the  pollen  is  placed  upon  the  stigma. 

298.  iSome  pollen  -  grains  are,  as  it 
were,  lobed  (as  in  Fig.  315,  316),  or 
formed  of  four  grains  united  (as  in  the 
Heath  family,  Pig.  317)  :  that  of  Pine 
(Fig.  318)  has  a  large  rounded  and  empty 
bladder-like  expansion  upon  each  side. 
This  readers  such  pollen  very  buoyant, 
and  capable  of  being  trans- 
ported to  a  great  distance 
by  the  wind. 

299.  In  species  of  Acacia 
simple  grains  lightly  cohere 
into  globular  pellets.  In 
Mdkweeds  and  in  most 
Orchids  all  the  poUen  of  an 

anther-cell  is  compacted  or  coherent  into  one  mass,  called  a  Pollen-mass,  ot 
PoLLiNiuM,  plural  PoLLiNiA.     (Fig.  319-322.) 


©J 


319 


ing  Primrose,  the  three  lobes  as  large  as  the  central  body;  317,  of  Kalmia,  four 
grains  united,  as  in  mo.st  of  the  Heath  family;  318,  of  Pine,  as  it  were  of  three 
grains  or  cells  united ;  the  lateral  enijity  and  light. 

Fig.  319.  Pollen,  a  pair  of  poUinia  of  a  Milkweed,  Asclepias,  attached  by  stalks 
to  a  gland;  moderately  magnified. 

Fig.  320.  Pollinium  of  an  Orcliis  (Habenaria),  with  its  stalk  attached  to  a 
sticky  gland;  magnified.  321.  Some  of  tlie  packets  or  partial  pollinia,  of  wliieh 
Fig.  320  is  made  up,  more  magnified. 

Fig.  322.  One  of  the  yiartial  pollinia,  torn  up  at  top  to  show  the  grains  (which 
are  each  composed  of  four),  aud  highly  magnified. 


SECTION    10.]  PISTILS.  100 


Section  X.     PISTILS   IN  PARTICULAR. 

§  1.    ANGIOSPERMOUS  OR  ORDINARY  GYNCECIUM. 

300.  Gynoecium  is  the  techuical  name  for  the  ])isiil  or  pistils  of  a 
flower  taken  collectively,  or  for  whatever  stands  in  place  of  tliese.  The 
various  modifications  of  the  gynoecium  and  the  terms  which  relate  to 
tliem  require  particular  attention. 

301.  The  Pistil,  when  only  one,  occupies  the  centre  of  the  flower; 
when  there  arc  two  pistils,  they  stand  facing  each  other  in  the  centre  of 
the  flower ;  when  several,  they  commonly  form  a  ring  or  circle ;  and  when 
very  numerous,  they  are  generally  crowded  iu  rows  or  spirals  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  more  or  less  enlarged  or  elongated  receptacle.  Their  number 
gives  rise  to  certain  terms,  the  counterpart  of  those  used  for  stamens  (284), 
which  are  survivals  of  the  names  of  orders  in  the  Liunsean  artificial  system. 
The  names  were  coined  by  prefixing  Greek  numerals  to  -ffj/nia  used  for 
gynoecium,  and  changed  into  adjectives  in  the  form  of  -ffi/nous.  That  is,  a 
flower  is 

Momgijnous,  when  it  has  a  single  pistil,  whether  that  be  simple  or  com- 
pound ; 

Bigi/nous,  when  it  has  only  two  pistils;  Trigynous,  when  with  three; 
Tctragijnous,  with  four;  Pcntagguous,  with  five;  Hexagynoiis,  with  six; 
and  so  on  to  Polggj/iious,  with  many  ])istils. 

302.  The  Parts  of  a  Complete  Pistil,  as  already  twice  explained  (16, 
236),  are  the  Ovary,  the  Style,  and  the  Stigma.  The  ovary  is  one  es- 
sential part:  it  contains  the  rudiments  of  seeds,  called  Ovules.  The 
stigma  at  the  summit  is  also  essential :  it  receives  the  pollen,  which  fer- 
tilizes the  ovules  in  order  that  they  may  become  seeds.  But  the  style, 
commonly  a  tapering  or  slender  column  borne  on  the  summit  of  the  ovary, 
and  bearing  the  stigma  on  its  apex  or  its  side,  is  no  more  necessary  to  a 
pistil  than  the  filament  is  to  the  stamen.  Accordingly,  there  is  no  style  in 
many  pistils :  in  these  the  stigma  is  sessile,  that  is,  rests  directly  on  the 
ovary  (as  in  Pig.  326).  The  stigma  is  very  various  in  shape  and  appear- 
ance, being  sometimes  a  little  knob  (as  in  the  Cherry,  Pig.  271),  sometimes 
a  point  or  small  surface  of  bare  tissue  (as  in  Pig.  327-330),  and  sometimes 
a  longitudinal  crest  or  line  (as  in  Pig.  321,  311-343),  or  it  may  occupy  the 
whole  lengih  of  the  style,  as  in  Pig.  331. 

303.  The  word  Pistil  (Latin,  PisliUum')  means  a  pestle.  It  came  into 
use  in  the  first  place  for  such  flowers  as  tiiose  of  Crown  Imperial,  or  Lily, 
in  which  the  pistil  in  the  centre  was  likened  to  the  pestle,  and  the  perianth 
around  it  to  tiie  mortar,  of  the  apothecary. 

304  .\  pistil  is  either  simple  or  compound.  It  is  simple  when  it  answers 
to  a  single  flower-leaf,  compound  when  it  answers  to  two  or  three,  or  a 
fuller  circle  of  such  h'aves  conjoined. 


106 


SIMPLE  PISTILS. 


[SECTION    10. 


305.  Carpels.  It  is  convenient  to  liave  a  name  for  each  flower-leaf  of 
the  gynceciuiii ;  so  it  is  called  a  Carpel,  in  Latin  Carpellum  or  Carpidium. 
A  simple  pistil  is  a  carpel.  Each  component  tlower-leaf  of  a  compound 
pistil  is  likewise  a  carpel.  When  a  flower  has  twu  or  more  pistils,  these 
of  course  are  simple  pistils,  that  is,  separate  carpels  or  pistil-leaves.  There 
may  be  only  a  single  simple  pistil  to  the  flower,  as  in  a  Pea  or  Ciierry 
blossom  (Fig.  271) ;  there  may  be  two  such,  as  in  many  Saxifrages ;  or 
many,  as  in  the  Strawberry.  More  commonly  the  single  pistil  in  the 
centre  of  a  blossom  is  a  compound  one.  Then  there  is  seldom  much 
difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  number  of  carpels  or  pistil-leaves  that  com- 
pose it. 

306.  The  Simple  Pistil,  viewed  morphologically,  answers  to  a  leaf- 
blade  with  margins  incurved  and  united  where  they  meet,  so  forming  a 
closed  case  or  pod  (the  ovary),  and  bearing  ovules  at  the  suture  or  junction 
of  these  margins  :  a  tapering  upper  portion  with  margins  similarly  inrolled, 
is  supposed  to  form  the  style ;  and  these  same  margins,  exposed  at  the  tip 
or  for  a  portion  of  the  length,  become  the  stigma.  Compare,  under  this 
view,  the  three  accompanying  figures. 

307.  So  a  simple  pistil  should  have  a  oue-colled  ovary,  only  one  line  of 

attachment  for  the  ovules,  a  single  style, 
and  a  single  stigma.  Certain  variations 
from  this  normal  condition  which  some- 
times occur  do  not  invalidate  this  mor- 
phological conception.  For  instance,  the 
stigma  may  become  two-lobed  or  two- 
ridged,  because  it  consists  of  two  leaf- 
margins,  as  Fig.  324  shows ;  it  may 
become  2-locellate  by  the  turning  or  grow- 
ing inward  of  one  of  the  sutures,  so  as  to 
divide  the  cavity. 

308.  There  are  two  or  three  terms  which  primarily  relate  to  the  parts 
of  a  simple  pistil  or  carpel,  and  are  thcncs  carried  on  to  the  compound 
pistil,  viz. :  — 

Ventbal  Suture,  the  line  which  answers  to  the  united  margins  of  the 
rarpel-leaf,  therefore  naturally  called  a  suture  or  seam,  and  the  ventral 
or  inner  one,  because  in  the  circle  of  carpel-leaves  it  looks  inward  or  to  the 
centre  of  the  flower. 

Dorsal  Suture  is  the  line  down"  the  back  of  the  carpel,  answering  to 


Fig.  323.  An  inrolled  small  leaf,  such  as  in  double-tlQwered  Cherry  blossoms  is 
often  seen  to  occupy  the  place  of  a  pistil. 

Fig.  324.  A  simple  pistil  (of  Isoiiyrum),  with  ovary  cut  across  ;  the  inner  (ven- 
tral) face  turned  toward  the  eye :  the  ovules  seem  to  lie  borne  on  the  ventral  suture, 
answering  to  leaf-margins  :  the  stigma  above  seen  also  to  answer  to  leaf-margins. 

Fig.  325.  Pod  or  simple  pistil  of  Caltha  or  Marsh-JNIarigold,  which  has  opened, 
and  shed  its  seeds. 


SECTION   10.] 


PISTILS. 


107 


the  midrib  of  the  leaf,  —  not  a  seam  therefore ;  but  at  maturity  many  fruits, 
sucli  as  pea-pods,  opeu  by  this  dorsal  as  well  as  by  the  ventral  line. 

Placenta,  a  name  given  to  the  surface,  whatever  it  be,  which  bears 
the  ovules  and  seeds.  The  name  may  be  needless  vrheii  the  ovules  grow 
directly  on  the  ventral  suture,  or  from  its  top  or  bottom  ;  but  when  there 
are  many  ovules  there  is  usually  some  expansion  of  an  ovule-bearing 
or  seed-bearmg  surface ;  as  is  seen  in  our  Mandrake  or  Podophyllum, 
Fig.  326. 

309.  A  Compound  Pistil  is  a  combination  of  two,  three,  or  a  greater 
number  of  pistil-leaves  or  carpels  in  a  circle,  united  into  one  body,  at  least 


326  327  328  329  330 

by  their  ovaries.  The  annexed  figures  should  make  it  clear.  A  series 
of  Saxifrages  might  be  selected  the  gynoecium  of  which  would  show  every 
gradation  between  two  simple  pistils,  or  separate  carpels,  and  their  com- 
plete coalescence  into  one  compound  and  two-celled  ovary.  Even  when 
the  constituent  styles  and  stigmas  are  completely  coalesceut  into  one,  the 
nature  of  the  combination  is  usually  revealed  by  some  external  lines  or 
grooves,  or  (as  in  Fig.  328-330)  by  the  internal  partitions,  or  the  number 
of  the  placenta^.     The  simplest  case  of  compound  pistil  is  that 

310.  With  two  or  more  Cells  and  Axile  Placentae,  namely,  witli  as 
many  cells  as  there  are  carpels,  that  have  united  to  compose  the  organ. 

Fig.  326.  Simple  pistil  of  Podophyllum,  cut  across,  showing  ovules  borne  on 
placenta. 

Fig.  327.  Pistil  of  a  Saxifrage,  of  two  simple  carpels  or  pistil-leaves,  united  at 
the  base  only,  cut  across  botli  above  and  below. 

Fig.  328.  Compound  3-carpellary  justil  of  common  St.  John's-wort,  cut  across : 
the  three  styles  separate. 

Fig.  329.  The  same  of  shrubliy  St.  John's-wort  ;  the  three  styles  as  well  as 
ovaries  here  united  into  one. 

Fig.  330.  Compound  3-carpellary  pistil  of  Tradescantia  or  Spiderwoi  t ;  the  three 
stigmas  as  well  as  styles  and  ovary  completely  coalescent  into  one. 


108 


COMPOUND  PISTILS. 


[section  10. 


Such  a  pistil  is  just  wliat  would  be  formed  if  tiic  simple  pistils  (two,  three, 

or  five  ill  a  circle,  as  the  case  iiia^  be),  like  those  of  a  Pseouy  or  Stonecrop 

(Fig.  224,  225),  pressed  together  in  tiic  centre  of  the  flower, 

were  to  coiiere  by  their  contiguous  parts.     In  such  a  case 

the  placentae  are  natui-ally  axilp,  or  all  brought  togetlier  in 

the  axis  or  centre;  and  the  ovary  has  as  many  Dissepiments, 

or  internal  Partitions,  as  there  are  carpels  in  its  composition. 

For  these  are  the  contiguous  and  coalesceut  walls  or  sides  of 

the  component  carpels.     When  such  pistils  ripen  into  pods, 

they  often  separate  along  tliese  lines  into  their  elementary 

carpels. 

311.  One-celled,  with  free  Central  Placenta.  The 
commoner  case  is  that  of  Purslane;  (i"ig.  27:2)  and  of  the 
Pink  and  Chickweed  families  (Fig.  331,  332).  This  is  ex- 
plained by  supposing  that  the  partitions  (such  as  those  of 
Fig.  329)  have  early  vanished  or  have  been  suppressed.  In- 
deed, traces  of  them  may  often  be  detected  in  Pinks.  On  Uie  other  hand, 
it  is  equally  supposable  that  in  the  Primula  family  the  free  central  is  de- 
rived from  parietal  placeutation  by  the  carpels  bearing  ovules 
only  at  base,  and  forming  a  consolidated  common  placenta 
in  the  axis.     Mitella  and  Dionsea  help  out  this  conce|)tion. 

312.  One-celled,  with  Parietal  Placentae.  In  this  not 
uncommon  case  it  is  conceived  that  the  two  or  three  or 
more  carpel-leaves  of  such  a  compound  pistil  coalesce  by 
their  adjacent  edges,  just  as  sepal-leaves  do  to  form  a  gamo- 

sepalous    calyx, 

S'^^JFrjg;        ^ ^ — ^^^.^_^      or  petals  to  form 

\^^^JB     />^f>>oX     //    ,«:<^^   a\    a   gamopetalous 

corolla,  and  as 
is  shown  in  the 
d  iagram,  Fig, 
333,  and  in  an 
actual  cross-sec- 
tion. Fig.  334.  Here  each  carpel  is  an  open  leaf,  or  with  some  introflexion, 
bearing  ovules  along  its  margins;  and  each  placenta  consists  of  the  con- 


334 


335 


336 


Fig.  331,  332.  Pistil  of  a  Sandwort,  with  vertical  ami  transverse  section  of  tlie 
ovary  :  free  central  placenta. 

Fig.  333.  Plan  of  a  one-celled  ovary  of  three  carpel -leaves,  with  parietal  pla- 
centaa,  cut  across  below,  where  it  is  complete;  the  upper  part  showing  the  top  of 
the  three  leaves  it  is  com]iosed  of,  ajiproaching,  but  not  united. 

Fig.  334.  Cross  section  of  the  ovary  of  Frost- weed  (HelianthemunO,  with  three 
parietal  placentae,  bearing  ovule.s. 

Fig.  335.  Cross  section  of  an  ovary  of  Hypericum  graveolens,  the  three  large  pla- 
centae meeting  in  the  centre,  so  as  to  form  a  three-celled  ovary.  3o(>.  Same  in  fruit, 
the  placeutai  now  separate  and  roniideil. 


SECTION   10.] 


PISTILS. 


109 


tiguous  margius  of  two  pistil-leaves  grown  together.  There  is  every  grada- 
tion between  tLis  and  the  three-celled  ovary  with  the  placenta;  in  the  axis, 
even  in  the  same  genus,  sometimes  even  in  different  stages  in  the  sp.nie 
pistil  (Fig.  335,  336). 

§  2.    GYMNOSPERMOUS  GYNCECIUM. 

313.  The  ordinary  pistil  lias  a  closed  ovary,  and  accordingly  tlie  pollen 
can  act  upon  tlie  contained  ovules  only  indirectly,  llirougli  tlie  stigma. 
This  is  expressed  in  a  term  of  Greek  derivation,  viz. :  — 

Aiigiospermous,  meaning  that  the  seeds  are  borne  in  a  sac  or  closed 
vessel.     The  counterpart  term  is 

Gymmspermous,  meaning  naked-seeded.  This  kind  of  pistil,  or  gyiioe- 
cium,  the  simplest  of  all,  yet  the  most  peculiar,  characterizes  the  Pine 
family  and  its  relatives. 

314.  While  the  ordinary  simple  pistil  is  conceived  by  the  botanist  to 
be  a  leaf  rolled  together  into  a  closed  pod  (306),  those  of  the 
Pine,  Larch  (Fig.  337),  Cedar,  and  Arbor-Vitse  (Fig.  338, 
339)  are  open  leaves,  in  the  form  of  scales,  each  bearing  two 
or  more  ovules  on  the  inner  face,  next  the  base.  At  the  time 
of  blossoming,  these  pistil-leaves  of  the  young  cone  diverge, 

and  the  pollen,  so  abundantly  shed  from  the  stam- 
iuate  blossoms,  falls  directly  upon  the  exposed 
ovules.  Afterward  the  scales  close  over  each 
other  until  the  seeds  are  ripe.  Then  i hey  sepa- 
rate that  the  seeds  may  be  shed.  As  the  pollen 
acts  directly  on  the  ovules,  such  pistil  (or  organ 
acting  as  pistil)  has  no  stigma. 

315.  In  the  Yew,  and  in  Torreya  and  Gingko, 
the  gynoeeium  is  reduced  to  extremest  simplicity, 
that  is,  to  a  naked  ovule,  without  any  visible 
carpel. 

316.  In  Cycas  the  large  naked  ovules  are  borne 
on  the  margins  or  lobes  of  an  obviims   open  leaf 
plants  have  other  peculiarities,  also  distinguishing 
Angiosfermous  plants. 


All  Gymnospermods 
them,  as  a  class,  from 


Fig.  337.  A  pistil,  that  i.s,  a  scale  of  the  cone,  of  a  Larch,  at  the  time  of  flower- 
ing; insitle  vii'w.  showing  its  pair  of  iiakeil  ovules. 

Fig.  338.  Branclilet  of  the  American  Arbor-Vitse,  considerably  larger  than  in 
nature,  terniinatiMl  by  its  pistillate  flowers,  each  consisting  of  a  single  scale  (an 
open  pistil),  together  forming  a  small  cone. 

Fig.  339.  One  of  the  scales  or  carpels  of  the  last,  removed  and  more  enlarged, 
the  inside  exposed  to  view,  showing  a  pair  of  ovules  on  its  base. 


no 


OVULES. 


[SECTION    11, 


Section  XI.     OVULES. 


317.  Ovule  (from  tlio  Latin,  meaning  a  little  egg)  is  the  technical  name 
of  that  which  in  the  flower  answers  to  and  becomes  tlie  seed. 

318.  Ovules  are  naked  m  gymnospermous  plants  (as  just  described);  in 
all  others  they  are  enclosed  in  the  ovai'y.    They  may  be  produced  along  tlic 

whole  length  of  the  cell  or  cells  of  the  ovary,  and  then  tliey  are 
apt  to  be  numerous ;  or  only  from  some  part  of  it,  generally 
the  top  or  the  bottom.  In  this  case  they  are  usually  few  or 
single  {jiolitary^  as  in  Fig.  34:l-3i3).  They  may  be  sessile, 
i.  e.  without  stalk,  or  they  may  be  attached  by  a  distinct  stalk, 
3^        the  FuNiCLE  or  Funiculus  (Fig.  340). 

319.  Considered  as  to  their  position  and  direction  in  the  ovary,  they  are 
Horizontal,  when  they  are  neither  turned  upward  nor  downward,  as  in 

Podophyllum  (Fig.  326) ; 

Ascending^  when  rising  obliquely  upwards,  usually  from  the  side  of  the 
cell,  not  from  its  very  base,  as  in  the  But- 
tercuj)  (Fig.  341),  and  the  Purslane  (Fig. 
272); 

Erect,  when  rising  upright  from  the 
very  base  of  the  cell,  as  in  the  Buck- 
wheat (Fig.  342) ; 

Pendulous,  when  hanging  from  the 
side  or  from  near  the  top,  as  in  the  Flax  (Fig.  270) ;  and 

Suspended,  when  hanging  perpendicularly  from  the  very  summit  of  the 
cell,  as  in  the  Anemone  (Fig.  343).  All  these  terms  equally  apply  to 
seeds. 

320.  In  structure  an  ovule  is  a  pulpy  mass  of  tissue,  usually  with  one 
or  two  coats  or  covei-ings.     Tlie  following  parts  are  to  be  noted  ;  viz  :  — 

Kernel  or  NucLiius,  the  body  of  the  ovule.  In  the  Mistletoe  and  some 
related  plants,  there  is  only  this  nucleus,  the  coats  being  wanting. 

Teguments,  or  coats,  sometimes  only  one,  more  commonly  two.  When 
two,  one  has  been  called  Primine,  the  other  Secundine.  It  will  serve  all 
purposes  to  call  them  simply  outer  and  inner  ovule-coats. 

Orifice,  or  Foramen,  an  opening  through  the  coats  at  the  organic  apex 
of  t!ie  ovule.     In  the  seed  it  is  Micropj/le. 

Ch.^laza,  the  place  where  the  coats  and  the  kernel  of  the  ovule  blend. 

HiLUM,  the  place  of  junction  of  the  funiculus  with  the  body  of  the  ovule. 

Fig.  340.  A  cluster  of  ovules,  pendulous  nn  their  fnnicles. 

Fig.  341.   Section  of  the  ovary  of  a  Buttercup,  lengthwise,  showing  its  ascending 
jvule. 
Fig.  342.    Section  of  the  ovary  of  Buckwlieat,  showing  the  erect  ovule. 
FiQ.  343.    Section  of  the  ovary  of  Anemone,  showing  its  suspended  ovule. 


SECTION  11.] 


OVULES. 


Ill 


321.    The  Kinds  of  Ovules.     The  ovules  in  their  growth  develop  in 
three  or  four  different  ways,  and  tliereby  are  distinguished  into 

Orthotropous  or  Straight^  those  which  develop  without  curviug  or  torn- 


'1, 


_/ 


344  345  346  347 

ing,  as  in  Fig.  344.  The  chalaza  is  at  the  insertion  or  base ;  the  foramea 
or  orifice  is  at  the  apex.  This  is  the  simplest,  but  the  least  common  kind  of 
ovule. 

Campylotropous  or  Licurced,  in  which,  by  the  greater  growth  of  one  side. 


355 


352  353    ■  354 

the  ovule  curves  into  a  kidney-shaped  outline,  so  bringing  the  orifice  down 
close  to  the  base  or  chalaza;  as  in  Fig.  345. 

Amphitropous  or  Half-Inverted,  Fig.  346.  Here 
the  foruiiug  ovule,  instead  of  curving  perceptibly, 
keeps  its  axis  nearly  straight,  and,  as  it  grows,  turns 
round  upon  its  base  so  far  as  to  become  transverse  to 
its  funiculus,  and  adnate  to  its  upper  part  for  some 
distance.  Tlierefore  in  this  case  the  attachment  of 
the  funiculus  or  stalk  is  about  the  middle,  the  chal- 
aza is  at  one  end,  the  orifice  at  the  other. 

Anatropous  or  Inverted,  as  in  Fig.  347,  the  com- 
monest kind,  so  called  because  in  its  growth  it  has 
as  it  were  turned  over  upon  its  stalk,  to  which  it  has  continued  adnate. 
The  organic  base,  or  chalaza,  thus  becomes  the  apparent  summit,  and  the 

Fig.  344.   Orthotropous  ovule  of  Buckwheat ;  c,  hilum  and  chalaza;  /,  orifice. 

Fig.  345.   Campylotropous  ovule  of  a  Chickweed:  c,  hilum  and  chalaza;  /,  orifice. 

Fig.  346.  Amphitropous  ovule  of  Mallow:/,  orifice;  h,  hilum;  r,  rhaphe;  c, 
chalaza. 

Fig.  347.   Anatropous  ovule  of  a  Violet;  tlie  parts  lettered  as  in  the  last. 

Fig.  348-3.50.  Three  early  stages  in  the  growth  of  ovule  of  a  Magnolia,  showing 
the  forming  outer  and  inner  coats,  which,  even  in  the  later  figure  have  not  yet 
completely  enclosed  the  nucleus ;  351,  further  advanced,  and  352,  completely  aua- 
tropous  ovule. 

Fig.  353.    Longitudinal  section,  and  354,  transverse  section  of  352. 

Fig.  355.  Same  as  353,  enlarged,  showing  the  parts  in  section  :  a,  outer  coat; 
6,  inner  co-vt;  c,  nucleus;  d,  rhaphe 


112 


THE  RECEPTACLE. 


[section  12. 


orifice  is  ut  tlie  base,  l)y  the  side  of  the  hiluin  or  place  of  attach  incut.  The 
adiiate  portion  of  the  funiculus,  which  appears  as  a  ridge  or  cord  cxteudiiig 
from  the  hilum  to  the  chalaza,  and  which  distinguislies  this  kind  of  ovule, 
is  called  the  Riiapue.  The  aniphitropous  ovule  (Fig.  346)  has  a  short  or 
iiicoinplete  rhaplic. 

322.  Fig.  348-352  show  the  stages  tiirough  which  an  ovule  becomes 
anutropous  in  the  course  of  its  growth.  The  annexed  two  figures  are  sec- 
tious  of  sucli  an  ovule  at  maturity  ;  and  Fig.  355  is  Fig.  353  enlarged, 
with  the  parts  lettered. 


Section  XII.     MODIPICATIONS  OF  THE  RECEPTACLE. 

323.  The  Torus  or  Receptacle  of  the  flower  (237,  Fig.  223)  is  the  por- 
tion whicii  belongs  to  the  stem  or  fixis.  In  all  preceding  illustrations  it  is 
small  and  short.  But  it  sometimes  lengthens,  sometimes  thickens  or  vari- 
ously enlarges,  and  takes  on  various  forms.  Some  of  these  have  received 
special  names,  very  few  of  which  are  in  common  use.  A  lengthened  por- 
tion of  the  receptacle  is  called 

A  Stipe.     This  name,  which  means  simply  a  trunk  or  stalk,  is  used  in 


botany  for  various  stalks,  even  for  the  leaf-stalk  in  Ferns.    It  is  also  applied 
to  the  stalk  or  petiole  of  a  carpel,  in  tlie  rare  cases  when  there  is  any,  as  in 


Fig.  356.  Longitmliiial  section  of  flower  of  Silene  Pennsylvanica,  showing  stipe 
between  calyx  and  corolla. 

Fig.  357.  Flower  of  a  Cleome  of  the  section  Gynandropsis,  showing  broadened 
receptacle  to  bear  petals,  lengthened  stipe  below  the  stamens,  and  another  between 
these  and  pistil. 

Fig.  358.    Pistil  of  Geranium  or  Cranesbill. 

Fig.  359.  The  same,  ripe,  with  the  five  carpels  splitting  away  from  the  long 
beak  (carpophore),  and  hanging  from  its  top  by  their  recurving  styles. 


SECTION   12.j 


THE   RECEPTACLE. 


113 


Goldthread.  Then  it  is  tecliuically  distinguished  as  a  Thecaphore.  "When 
there  is  a  stalk,  or  lengtliciied  iuteriiode  of  receptacle,  diicctl)-  under  a 
compound  pistil,  as  in  Stauleya  and  sonic  other  Cruciferse,  it  is  called  a 
Gynophoke.  When  the  stalk  is  developed  below  the  stamens,  as  in  most 
species  of  Sileue  (Fig.  35G),  it  has  been  called  an  Anthophore  or  Goko- 
puoRE.  In  Fig.  357  the  torus  is  dilated  above  the  calyx  where  it  bears 
the  petals,  then  there  is  a  long  internode  (gonophore)  between  it  and  the 
stamens ;  then  a  shorter  one  (gynophore)  between  these  and  tlie  pistil. 

324.  A  Carpophore  is  a  prolongation  of  receptacle  or  axis  between  the 
carpels  and  bearing  them.  Umbelliferous  plants  and  Geranium  (Fig.  358, 
359)  afford  characteristic  examples. 

325.  Flowers  with  very  numerous  simple  pistils  generally  have  the  re- 
ceptacle enlarged  so  as  to  give  them  room  ;  sometimes  becoming  broad  and 
flat,  as  in  the  Flowering  liaspberry,  sometimes  elongated,  as  in  the  Black- 


360  361  362 

berry,  the  Magnolia,  etc.  It  is  the  receptacle  in  the  Strawberry  (Fig.  360), 
much  enlarged  and  pulpy  when  ripe,  which  forms  the  eatable  part  of  the 
fruit,  and  bears  the  small  seed-like  pistils  on  its  surface.  In  the  Rose 
(Fig.  361),  instead  of  being  convex  or  conical,  the  receptacle  is  deeply 
concave,  or  urn-shaped.  Indeed,  a  Rose-hip  may  be  likened  to  a  straw- 
berry turned  inside  out,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove  reversed, 
and  the  whole  covered  by  the  adlierent  lube  of  the  calyx. 
The  calyx  remains  beneath  in  the  strawberry. 

326.  In  Nelumbium,  of  the  Water-Lily  family,  the  singu- 
lar and  greatly  enlarged  receptacle  is  shaped  like  a  top,  and 

bears  the  small  pistils  immersed  in  separate  cavities  of  its  flat  I 
upper  surface  (Fig.  302). 

327.  A  Disk  is  an  enlarged  low  receptacle  or  an  out- 
growth from  it,  hypogynous  when  underneatii  the  pistil,  as  in 
Rue  and  the  Orange  (Fig.  363),  and  perin/nous  when  adnate 

to  calyx-tube  (as  in  Buckthorn,  Fig.  364,  365),  and  Cherry  (Fig.  271),  or 


Fig.  3G0.    Longitudinal  section  of  a  young  .strawbei'i-y,  etilargeil. 
Fig.  36L    Similar  section  of  a  young  Rose-liip. 

Fig.  3(52.    Enlarged  and  top-.sliaped  receptacle  of  Nelumbium,  at  maturity. 
Fig.  3t53.    Hypogynous  disk  iu  Orange. 

8 


114  FERTILIZATION.  [SECTION   13. 

to  both  calyx-tube  and  ovary,  as  in  Hawthorn  (Fig.  273).     A  flattened 

hypogyuous  disk,  underlying  the  ovary 
or  ovaries,  and  from  which  they  fall 
away  at  maturity,  is  sometimes  called 
a  Gynobase,  as  in  the  Rue  family. 
In  some  Borragineous  flowers,  such  as 
Houndstongue,  the  gynobase  runs  up 
in  the  centre  between  the  carpels  into 

a  carpophore.     The  so-called  epigymus  disk  (or  Stylopodiumj  crowning 

the  summit  of  the  ovary  in  flowers  of  Urabelliferse,  etc.,  cannot  be  said  to 

belong  to  the  receptacle. 


Section  XIII.    FERTILIZATION. 

328.  The  end  of  the  flower  is  attained  when  the  ovules  become  seeds. 
A  flower  remains  for  a  certain  time  (longer  or  shorter  according  to  the 
species)  in  aaihesis,  that  is,  in  the  proper  state  for  the  fulfilment  of  this 
end.  During  anthesis,  the  ovules  have  to  be  fertilized  by  the  pollen ;  or  at 
least  some  pollen  has  to  reach  the  stigma,  or  in  gymnospermy  the  ovule 
itself,  and  to  set  up  the  peculiar  growth  upon  its  moist  and  permeable  tis- 
sue, which  has  for  result  the  production  of  an  embryo  in  the  ovules.  By 
this  the  ovules  are  said  to  be  fertilized.  The  first  step  is  pollination,  or, 
so  to  say,  the  sowing  of  the  proper  pollen  upon  the  stigma,  where  it  is  to 
germinate. 

§  1.     ADAPTATIONS  FOR  POLLINATION  OF  THE  STIGMA. 

329.  These  various  and  ever-interesting  adaptations  and  processes  are 
illustrated  in  the  "Botanical  Text  Book,  Structural  Botany,"  chap.  VI. 
sect,  iv.,  also  in  a  brief  and  simple  way  in  "  Botany  for  Young  People,  How 
Plants  Behave."     So  mere  outlines  only  arc  given  here. 

330.  Sometimes  the  application  of  pollen  to  the  stigma  is  left  to  chance, 
as  in  dioecious  wind-fertilized  flowers  ;  sometimes  it  is  rendered  very  sure, 
as  in  flowers  that  are  fertilized  in  the  bud ;  sometimes  the  pollen  is  prevented 
from  reaching  the  stigma  of  the  same  flower,  although  placed  very  near  to 
it,  but  then  there  are  always  arrangements  for  its  transference  to  the  stigma 
of  some  other  blossom  of  the  kind.  It  is  among  these  last  that  the  most 
exquisite  adaptations  are  met  with. 

331.  Accordingly,  some  flowers  are  particularly  adapted  to  close  or  sslf- 
fertilization;  others  to  cross  fertilization;  some  for  either,  according  to 
circumstances. 

Fig.  364.    Flower  of  a  Bucktliorn  sliowing  a  conspicuous  i)erigyuous  disk. 
Fig.  365.     Vertical  section  of  same  flower. 


SECTION    13,]  FERTILIZATION.  115 

Close  Fertilization  occurs  when  the  pollen  reaches  aad  acts  upon  a  stigma 
of  the  very  same  flower  (tliis  is  also  called  self-fertilizalion),  or,  less  closely, 
upon  other  blossoms  of  the  same  cluster  or  the  same  individual  plant. 

Cross  Fertilization  occui's  when  ovules  are  fertilized  bv  pollen  of  other 
individuals  of  the  same  s[)ecies. 

Hybridization  occurs  when  ovules  are  fertilized  by  pollen  of  some  other 
(necessarily  some  nearly  related)  species. 

332.  Close  Fertilization  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  result  in  ordi- 
nary herniapbrodite  flowers;  but  it  is  by  no  means  so  in  all  of  them.  More 
commonly  the  arrangements  are  such  that  it  takes  place  only  after  some 
opportunity  for  cross  f'eriilization  has  been  afforded.  But  close  fertiliza- 
tion is  inevitable  in  what  are  called 

Cleistogamous  Flowers,  that  is,  in  those  which  are  fertilized  in  the  flower- 
bud,  while  still  unopened.  Most  flowers  of  tliis  kind,  indeed,  never  open 
at  all ;  but  the  closed  lioral  coverings  are  forced  off  by  the  growth  of  the 
precociously  fertilized  pistil.  Connnou  examples  of  this  are  found  in  the 
earlier  blossoms  of  Specularia  perfoliata,  i]i  tlie  later  ones  of  most  Violets,  es- 
pecially the  steniless  species,  in  our  wild  Jewel  weeds  or  Impatiens,  in  the 
subterranean  shoots  of  Amphicarpsea.  Every  plant  wliich  produces  these 
cleistogamous  or  bud-fertilized  flowers  bears  also  more  conspicuous  and 
open  flowers,  usually  of  bright  colors.  The  latter  very  commonly  fail  to 
set  seed,  but  the  former  are  prolific. 

833.  Cross  Fertilization  is  naturally  provided  for  in  dioecious  plants 
(249),  is  much  favored  in  monoecious  plants  (249),  and  hardly  less  so  in 
dichogamous  and  in  heterogonous  flowers  (33S).  Cross  fertilization  depends 
upon  the  transportation  of  pollen  ;  and  the  two  ])rincipal  agents  of  convey- 
ance are  winds  and  insects.  Most  flowers  are  in  their  whole  structure 
adapted  eitiicr  to  the  one  or  to  the  other. 

334.  Wind-fertilizable  or  Anemophilous  flowers  are  more  commonly 
dioecious  or  monoecious,  as  in  Pines  and  all  coniferous  trees,  Oaks,  and 
Birches,  and  Sedges;  yet  sometimes  herma])hrodite,  as  in  Plantains  and 
most  Grasses ;  they  produce  a  superabundance  of  very  light  pollen,  adapted 
to  be  wind-borne ;  and  they  offer  neither  nectar  to  feed  winged  insects, 
nor  fragrance  nor  bria:ht  colors  to  attract  them. 

335.  Insect-fertilizable  or  Entomophilous  flowers  are  those  which 
are  sought  by  insects,  for  pollen  or  for  neclar,  or  for  both.  Through  their 
visits  pollen  is  conveyed  from  one  flower  and  from  one  plant  to  another. 
Insects  are  attracted  to  such  blossoms  by  their  bright  colors,  or  their  fra- 
grance, or  by  the  nectar  (the  material  of  honey)  there  provided  for  them. 
While  supplying  their  own  needs,  they  carry  pollen  from  anthers  to  stigmas 
and  from  plant  to  plant,  thus  bringing  about  a  certain  amount  of  cross  fer- 
tilization. Willows  and  some  other  dioecious  flowers  are  so  fertilized, 
chiefly  by  bees.  But  most  insect-visited  flowers  have  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils associated  either  in  the  same  or  in  contiguous  blossoms.  Even  when 
in  the  same  blossom,  anthers  and  stigmas  are  very  commonly  so  situated 


116  FERTILIZATION.  [SECTION   13. 

that  uuilcr  iiisect-visitalion,  some  polleu  is  more  likely  to  be  deposited  upon 
other  thau  upon  own  stigmas,  so  giving  a  chauce  for  cross  as  well  as  for 
close  fertilization.  On  the  other  hand,  numerous  flowers,  of  very  various 
kinds,  have  their  parts  so  arranged  that  they  must  almost  necessarily  be  cross- 
fertilized  or  be  barren,  and  are  therefore  dependent  upon  tlie  aid  of  insects. 
This  aid  is  secured  by  different  exquisite  adaptations  and  coutrivauces, 
whieii  would  need  a  volume  for  full  illustration.  Indeed,  there  is  a  good 
number  of  volumes  devoted  to  this  subject.^ 

336.  Some  of  the  adaptations  which  favor  or  ensure  cross  fertilization 
are  peculiar  to  the  particular  kiud  of  blossom.  Orchids,  Milkweeds,  Kal- 
mia.  Iris,  and  papiliouaceous  flowers  each  have  their  own  special  contriv- 
ances, quite  ditlereut  fur  each. 

337.  Irregular  llo'wers  (253)  aud  especially  irregular  corollas  are  usu- 
ally adaptations  to  insect-visitation.  So  are  all  Nectaries,  whether  hollow 
spurs,  sacs,  or  other  concavities  in  which  nectar  is  secreted,  and  all  nectar- 
iferous glands. 

338.  Moreover,  there  are  two  arrangements  for  cross  fertilization  com- 
mon to  hermaphrodite  flowers  in  various  difl'creut  families  of  plants,  which 
have  received  special  names.  Dichogamy  and  Heterogony. 

339.  Dichogamy  is  the  commoner  case.  Flowers  are  dichogamous  when 
the  anthers  discharge  their  pollen  either  before  or  after  the  stigmas  of  that 
flower  are  in  a  condition  to  receive  it.     Such  flowers  are 

Proterandrous,  when  the  anthers  are  earlier  than  the  stigmas,  as  in  Gen- 
tians, Campanula,  Epilobium,  etc. 

Proterogyuous,  when  the  stigmas  are  mature  and  moistened  for  the  re- 
ception of  pollen,  before  the  anthers  of  that  blossom  are  ready  to  supply 
it,  and  are  withered  before  that  pollen  can  be  supplied.  Plantains  or 
Ribworts  (mostly  wind-fertilized)  are  strikingly  proterogyuous  :  so  is  Amor- 
pha,  our  Papaws,  Scropliularia,  and  in  a  less  degree  the  blossom  of  Pears, 
Hawthorns,  and  llorsc-chestnut. 

340.  In  Sabbat  ia,  the  large-flowered  species  of  Epilobium,  and  strikingly 
in  Clerodendron,  the  dichogamy  is  supplemented  and  pcrlectcd  by  move- 
ments of  the  stamens  and  style,  one  or  both,  adjusted  to  make  sure  of 
cross  fertilization. 

341.  Heterogony.  This  is  the  case  in  which  hermaphrodite  and  fer- 
tile flowers  of  two  sorts  are  produced  on  different  individuals  of  the  same 
species;  one  sort  having  higher  anthers  and  lower  stigmas,  the  other  hav- 
ing higher  stigmas  and  lower  anthers.  Thus  reciprocally  disposed,  a  visit- 
ing insect  carries  pollen  from  the  high  anthers  of  the  one  to  the  high  stigma 
of  the  other,  and  from  the  low  anthers  of  the  one  to  the  low  stigma  of  the 
other.     These  plants  are  practically  as  if  dioecious,  with  the  advantage  that 

1  Beirinning  with  One  by  C.  C.  Sprengel  in  1793,  and  again  in  our  day  with 
Darwin,  "  On  the  Various  Coutrivauces  by  which  Orchids  are  fertihzed  by  Insects," 
and  in  succeeding  works. 


SECTION    14.]  FRUIT.  117 

both  kinds  are  fruitful.  Houstonia  and  MitcLella,  or  Partridge-berry,  are 
excellent  and  familiar  examples.     These  are  cases  of 

Heteroffone  Dimorphism,  the  relative  lengths  being  only  short  and  long 
reciprocally. 

Heterogone  Trimorphism.,  in  which  there  is  a  nsid-length  as  well  as  a  long 
and  a  short  set  of  stamens  and  style;  occurs  in  Ly thrum  Salicaria  and  some 
species  of  Oxalis. 

342.  There  must  be  some  essential  advantage  in  cross  fertilization  or 
cross  breeding.  Otherwise  all  these  various,  elaborate,  and  exquisitely 
adjusted  adaptations  would  be  aimless.  Doubtless  the  advantage  is  the 
same  as  that  which  is  realized  in  all  the  higher  animals  by  the  distinction 
of  sexes. 

§  2.    ACTION  OF  POLLEN,  AND  FORMATION  OF  THE  EMBRYO. 

343.  Pollen-growth.  A  grain  of  pollen  may  be  justly  likened  to  one 
of  the  simple  bodies  {sporeft)  which  answer  for  seeds  in  Cryptogamous  plants. 
Like  one  of  these,  it  is  capable  of  germination.  When  deposited  upon  the 
moist  surface  of  the  stigma  (or  in  some  cases  even  when  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance) it  grows  from  some  point,  its  living  inner  coat  breaking  through  the 
inert  outer  coat,  and  protruding  in  the  form  of  a  delicate  tube.  This  as  it 
lengthens  penetrates  the  loose  tissue  of  the  stigina  and  of  a  loose  conduct- 
ing tissue  in  the  style,  feeds  upon  the  nourishing  liquid  matter  there  pro- 
vided, reaches  the  cavity  of  the  ovary,  enters  the  orifice  of  an  ovule,  and 
attaches  its  extremity  to  a  sac,  or  the  hning  of  a  definite  cavity,  in  the 
ovule,  called  the  Embri/o-Sar. 

344.  Origination  of  the  Embryo.  A  globule  ^f  living  matter  in  the 
embryo-sac  is  formed,  and  is  in  some  way  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the 
apex  of  the  pollen  tube ;  it  probably  absorbs  the  contents  of  the  latter ;  it 
then  sets  up  a  special  growth,  and  the  Embryo  (8-10)  or  rudijueutary 
plantlet  iu  the  seed  is  the  result. 


Section  XIV.     THE  FRUIT. 

345.  Its  Nature.  The  ovary  matures  into  the  Fruit.  In  the  strictest 
sense  the  fruit  is  the  seed-vessel,  technically  named  the  Pericarp.  But 
practically  it  may  include  other  parts  organically  connected  with  the  peri- 
carp. Especially  the  calyx,  or  a  part  of  it,  is  often  incorporated  with  the 
ovary,  so  as  to  be  undistinguishably  a  portion  of  the  pericarp,  and  it  even 
forms  along  with  the  receptacle  the  whole  bulk  of  such  edible  fruits  as 
apples  and  pears.  The  receptacle  is  an  obvious  part  in  blackberries,  and 
is  the  whole  edible  portion  iu  the  strawberry. 

346.  Also  a  cluster  of  distinct  carpels  may,  in  ripiMiing,  he  consolidated 
or  compacted,  so  as  practically  to  be  taken  for  one  fruit.    Such  are  raspber- 


118 


FRUIT, 


[section  14. 


ries,  blackberries,  the  Magnolia  fruit,  etc.  Moreover,  Ibe  ripened  product 
of  mauy  flowers  may  be  coiiipucted  or  grown  together  so  as  to  form  a  single 
compound  fniit. 

347.  Its  kinds  have  therefore  to  be  distinguished.     Also  various  names 
of  common  use  iu  descriptive  botany  have  to  be  mentioned  and  defined. 

348.  In  respect  to  composition,  accordingly,  fruits   may  be   classified 
into 

Simple,  those  which  result  from  the  ripening  of  a  single  pistil,  and  con- 
sist only  of  the  matured  ovary,  either  by  itself,  as  in  a  cherry,  or  with 
calyx-tul)e  completely  incorporated  with  it,  as  in  a  gooseberry  or  cranberry. 
Aggregate,  when  a  cluster  of  carpels  of  tlie  same  flower  are  ci'owded  into 
a  mass  ;  as  iu  raspberries  and  blackberries. 
Accessor!/  or  Anthocarpous,  when  the  surroundings  or  supports  of  the 
pistil  make  up  a  part  of  the  mass;  as  does 
the  loose  calyx  changed  into  a  fleshy  and 
berry-like   envelope    of    our    Wintergreen 
„',«,  V  y     (Gaultheria,  Fig.    366,  367)  and  BuiralD- 

4il/  ^A  f=^       berry,  which  are  otherwise    simple  fruits. 

In  an  aggregate  fruit    such  as  the  straw- 
^^^  ^''"  berry  the  great   mass    is   receptacle  (Fig. 

360,  368) ;  and  in  the  blackberry  (Fig.  369)  the  juicy  receptacle  forms  the 
central  part  of  the  savory  mass. 

Multiple  or  Collective,  when  formed  from  several  flowers  consolidated 

into  one  mass,  of  which  the  common 
receptacle  or  axis  of  inflorescence, 
^   the  floral   envelopes,  and  even    the 
bracts,  etc.,  make  a  part.      A  mul- 
berry (Fig.  408,  which  superficially 
much    resembles     a 
blackberry)  is  of  this 
multiple  sort.  Aj)ine- 
apple  is  another  ex- 
ample. 

349.  In  respect  to 
texture    or   consist- 
ence, fruits  may  be 
distinguished  into  three  kinds,  viz. :  — 

Fleshy  Fruits,  those  which  are  more  or  less  soft  and  juicy  throughout; 


r^?  cnr 


3G8 


869 


Fig.  366,  Forming  fruit  (capsule)  of  Gaultheria,  with  calyx  thickening  around 
its  base.  367.  Section  of  same  mature,  the  berry-like  calyx  nearly  enclosing  the 
capsule. 

Fig.  368.    Section  of  a  part  of  a  strawberry.     Compare  with  Fig.  3G0. 

Fig.  369.  Similar  section  of  part  of  a  blackberry.  370.  One  of  its  component 
simple  fruits  (drupe)  in  section,  showing  the  pulp,  stone,  and  contained  seed:  more 
enlarged.     Compare  with  Fig.  375. 


SECTION    14.] 


FRUIT. 


119 


Stone  Friiils,  or  Drupaceous,  the  outer  part  flesliy  like  a  berry,  the  inner 
hard  or  stouy,  like  a  nut ;  and 

Dri/  Fruits,  those  which  have  no  flesh  or  pulp. 

350.  In  rcfereucc  to  the  way  of  disseminating  the  contained  seed,  fruits 
are  said  to  be 

Indehiscent  when  they  do  not  open  at  maturity.  Pleshy  fruits  and  stone 
fruits  are  of  course  indeliiscent.  The  seed  becomes  free  only  through 
decay  or  by  beiug  fed  upon  by  animals.  Those  which  escape  digestion  are 
thus  disseminated  by  the  latter.  Of  dry  fruits  many  are  indehiscent;  and 
these  are  variously  arranged  to  be  transported  by  animals.  Some  burst 
irregularly;  many  are 

heldscent,  that  is,  they  split  open  regularly  along  certain  lines,  and 
discharge  the  seeds.  A  dehiscent  fruit  ahnost  always  contains  many  or 
several  seeds,  or  at  least  more  than  one  seed. 


371  372  373  374 

351.  The  principal  kinds  of  fruit  which  have  received  substantive  names 
and  are  of  common  use  in  descriptive  botany  are  the  following.  Of  fleshy 
fruits  the  leading  kind  is 

352.  The  Berry,  such  as  the  gooseberry  and  currant,  the  blueberry 
and  cranberry  (Fig.  371),  the  tomato,  and  the  grape.  Here  the  whole 
flesh  is  soft  throughout.     The  orange  is  a  berry  with  a  leathery  rind. 

353.  The  Pepo,  or  Gourd-fruit,  is  a  hard-rinded  berry,  belonging  to 
the  Gourd  family,  such  as  the  pumpkin,  squash,  cucumber,  and  melon. 
Fig.  372,  373. 

354.  The  Pome  is  a  name  applied  to  the  apple,  pear  (Fig.  374),  and 
quince;  fleshy  fruits,  like  a  berry,  but  the  principal  thickness  is  calyx,  only 

Fig.  371.  Leafy  shoot  and  beny  (cut  acrcss)  of  the  larger  Cranberry,  Vacciaium 
iDacrocarpon. 

Fig.  372.    Pepo  of  Gnurrl.  in  .section.     373.  One  carpel  of  same  in  diagram. 
Fig.  374.   Longitudinal  and  transverse  sections  of  a  pear  (pome). 


120 


FRUIT. 


^SECTION    14. 


the  papery  pods  arranged  like  a  star  in  the  core  really  belonging  to  the 
carpels.  The  iVuit  of  the  Hawthorn  is  a  drupaceous  pome,  something  be- 
tween pome  and  drupe. 

355.    Of  fruits  wliieh  are  externally  fleshy  and  internally  hard  the  lead- 
ing kind  is 

350.  The  Drupe,  or  Stone-fruit ;  of  which  the  cherry,  plum,  and  peach 
(Fig.  375)  are  familiar  examples.  In  this  the 
outer  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  pericarp  I)e- 
comes  fleshy,  or  softens  like  a  berry,  while  the 
inner  hardens,  like  a  nut.  From  the  way  in  which 
the  pistil  is  constructed,  it  is  evident  that  the 
fleshy  part  here  answers  to  the  lower,  and  the 
stone  to  the  upper  face  of  the  component  leaf. 
The  layers  or  concentric  portions  of  a  drupe,  or 
of  any  pericarp  which  is  thus  separable,  are  named, 
when  thus  distinguishable  iulo  three  portions, — 
Epicarp,  the  external  layer,  often  the  mere  skin  of  the  fruit, 
Mesocarp,  the  middle  layer,  which  is  commonly  the  fleshy  part,  and 
Endocarp,  tbe  innermost  layer,  the  stone.  But  more  conmiouly  only  two 
portions  of  a  drupe  are  distinguished,  and  are  named,  the  outer  one 

Sarcocarp  or  Exocarp,  for  the  flesh,  the  first  name  referring  to  the  fleshy 
character,  the  second  to  its  being  an  external  layer;  and 
Putameii  or  Endocarp,  the  Stone,  within. 

357.  The  typical  or  true  drupe  is  of  a  single  carpel.  But,  not  to  multiply 
technical  names,  this  name  is  extended  to  all  such  fruits  wlien 
fleshy  without  and  stony  within,  although  of  compound  pistil, 
—  even  to  those  having  several  or  separable  stones,  such  as  the 
fruit  of  Holly.  These  stones  in  such  drupes,  or  drupaceous 
fruits,  are  called  Pyrenee,  or  Nucules,  or  simply  Nutlets  of 
the  drupe. 

358.  Of  Dry  fruits,  there  is  a  greater  diversity  of  kinds  hav- 
ing distinct  names.   The  indehis- 
cent   sorts    are    commonly    one- 
seeded. 

350.  The  Akene  or  Ache- 
nium  is  a  small,  dry  and  indchis- 
cent  one-seeded  fruit,  often  so 
seed-like  in  appearance  that  it  is 
popularly  taken  for  a  naked  seed, 
is  a  good  example,  Fig.  376,  377- 


377  378 

The  fruit  of  the  Batter  cup  or  Crowfoot 
Its  nature,  as  a  ripened  pistil  (in  this 


FiQ.  375.   Longitudinal  .section  of  a  peach,  showing  flesli,  .stone,  aiid  seed. 

Fig.  376.  Akene  of  a  Buttercup.  377.  The  same,  divided  lengthwise,  to  .show 
the  contained  seed. 

Fig.  378.  Akene  of  Virgin's-bower,  retaining  the  feathered  style,  which  aids  in 
disseniination. 


SECTION    14.] 


FRUIT. 


121 


case  a  simple  carpel),  is  apparent  by  its  bearing  the  remains  of  a  style  or 
stigma,  or  a  scar  from  wlucli  this  lias  fallen.  It  may  retain  the  style  and 
use  it  in  various  ways  for  dissemination  (Fig.  378). 

360.  The  fruit  of  Composita;  (tliougli  not  of  a  single  carpel)  is  also  an 
akeue.  In  tliis  case  the  pericarp  is  invested 
by  an  adherent  calyx-tube  ;  the  limb  of  which, 
when  it  has  any,  is  called  the  Pappus.  Tliis 
name  was  first  given  t(j  the  down  like  that  of 
the  Thistle,  but  is  applied  to  all  forms  under 
which  the  limb  of  the  calyx  of  the  "  compound 
flower  "  appears.     In  Lettuce,  Dandelion  (Fig. 

1 


380 

384),  and  the  like,  the  acheuium  as  it  matures  tapers  upwards  into  a  slender 

beak,  like  a  stalk  to  the  pappus. 

361.    A  Cremocarp  (Fig.  385),  a  name  given  to  the  fruit  of  Umbclli- 
ferai,  consists  as  it  were  of  a  pair  nf  akeues  imitcd  com- 
plciely  ra  the  blossom,  but  splitiiiig  apart  when  ripe  ifT, 
into  the  two  closed  carpels.     Each  (jf  these  is  a  3Ien- 
carp  or  Hemicarp,  names  seldom  used. 

362.  A  Utricle  is  the  same  as  an  akene,  but  with 
a  thin  and  bladdery  loose  pericai-p ;  like  that  of  tlic 
Goosefoot  or  Pigweed  (Fig.  3S6).  \Mien  ripe  il  may 
burst  open  irregularly  to  discharge  the  seed ;  or  it  may 
o|)en  by  a  circular  line  all  round,  the  ujiper  part  fall- 
ing off  like  a  lid  ;  as  in  the  Amaranth  (Fig.  387). 

363.  A  Caryopsis,  or  Grain,  is  like  an  akene  with 
the  seed  adhering  to  the  thin  pericarp  throughout,  so 

that  fruit  and  seed  are  incorporated  into  one  body ;  as  in  wheat,  Indian 
corn,  and  other  kinds  of  grain. 

364.    A  Nut  is  a  dry  and  indehiscent  fruit,  commonly  one-celled  and  one- 


FiG.  379,  Akene  of  Mayweed  (no  pappiis).  380.  That  of  Snccory  (its  pappus  a 
shallow  cup).  381.  Of  Sunflower  (jiappus  of  two  deciduous  scales).  382.  Of 
Sneezeweed  (Heleniuin),  with  its  pappus  of  five  scales.  383.  Of  Sow-Tlusfle,  with 
its  ])appus  of  delicate  downy  hairs.  38t.  Of  the  Dandelion,  its  pappus  raised  on 
a  long  beak. 

Fig.  385.  Fruit  (cremocar]i)  of  Osmorrhiza;  the  two  akene-like  ripe  carpels  sep- 
aratiiic;  at  maturity  from  a  slender  axis  or  carpophorse. 

Fig.  386.    Utricle  of  tlie  common  Pigweed  (riienopodium  alt)uni). 

Fig.  387.   Utricle  (pyxis)  of  Amaranth,  opening  all  round  (circuniscissile). 


122 


FRUIT. 


[SECTION    14. 


seeded,  with  a  hard,  crustaceous,  or  bony  wall,  such  as  llic  cocoanui,  hazel- 
nut, chestnut,  and  the  acorn  (Fig.  37,  388.)  Here  the 
involucre,  in  the  form  of  a  cup  at  the  base,  is  called  the 
CupuLE.  In  the  Chestnut  fhc  cupulc  forms  the  bur;  in 
the  Hazel,  a  leafy  husk. 

305.  A  Samara,  or  Key-fruit,  is  either  a  nut  or  an 
akeue,  or  any  other  iiidchiseent  fruit,  furnished  witli  a  wing, 
like  that  of^Vsh  (Fig.  389),  and  Elm  (Fig.  390).  The 
Maple-fruit  is  a  pair  of  keys  (Fig.  391). 

366.  Dehiscent  Fruits,  or  Pods,  are  of  two  classes,  viz., 
those  of  a  simple  pistil  or  carpel,  and  those  of  a  compound 

pistil.     Two  common  sorts  of  the  first  are  named  as  follows  :  — 

367.  The  Follicle  is  a  fruit  of  a  simple  carpel,  which  dehisces  down  one 
side  only,  i.  e.  by  the  inner  or  ventral  suture.     The 
fruits  of  Marsh  Marigold  (Fig.  392j,  Pseouy,  Larkspur, 
and  Milkweed  are  of  this  kind. 

368.  The  Legume  or  true  Pod,  such  as  the  pcapod 
(Fig.  393),  and  the  fruit  of  the  Leguminous  or  Pulse  \«s 
family  generally,  is  one  which  opens  along  the  dorsal  as 

well  as  the  ventral  suture.     The  two  pieces 


388 


389  390 

into  which  it  splits  are  called  Valves.  A  Lomext  is  a  legume  which  is 
constricted  between  the  seeds,  and  at  length  breaks  up  crosswise  into  dis- 
tinct joints,  as  in  Fig.  394. 

369.  The  pods  or  dehiscent  fruits  belonging  to  a  compound  ovary  have 
several  technical  names  :  but  they  all  may  be  regarded  as  kinds  of 

370.  The  Capsule,  the  dry  and  dehiscent  fruit  of  any  compound  pistil. 
The  capsule  may  discharge  its  seeds  through  chinks  or  pores,  as  in  the 


Fig.  388.  Nut  (acorn)  of  the  Oak,  with  its  cup  or  cupule. 

Fig.  389.  Samara  or  key  of  the  White  Ash,  winged  at  end.    390. 
the  American  Elm,  winged  all  round. 

Fig.  391.  Pair  of  .samaras  of  Sugar  Maple. 

Fig.  392.  Follicle  of  Marsh  Marigold  (Caltha  palustris). 

Fig.  393.  Legume  of  a  Sweet  Pea,  opened. 

fiG.  394.  Loment  or  Jointed  legume  of  a  Tick-Trefoil  (Desmodium), 


Samara  oi 


SECTION    14.] 


FRUIT, 


123 


Poppy,  or  burst  irregularly  in  some  part,  as  in  Lobelia  and  the  Snapdragon ; 
but  coiiunouly  it  splits  open  (or  is  dehiscent)  lengthwise  into  regular  pieces, 
called  Valves. 

371.  Regular  Dehiscence  in  a  capsule  takes  place  in  two  ways,  which  are 
best  illustrated  in  pods  of  two  or  three  cells.     It  is  either 

Loculicidal,  or,  splitting  directly  into  the  loculi  or  cells,  that  is,  down 
the  back  (or  the  dorsal  suture)  of  each  cell  or  carpel,  as  in 
Iris  (Fig.  395) ;  or 

Septicidul,  that  is,  splitting  through  the  partitions  or  septa, 
as  in  St.  John's-wort  (Fig.  39G),  Rhododendron, 
etc.     This  divides  the  capsule  into  its  compo- 
nent carpels,  which  then  open  by  their  ventral 
suture. 

372.  In  loculicidal  dehiscence  the  valves  nat- 
urally bear  the  partitions  on  their  middle ;  in 
the  septicidal,  half  the  thickness  of  a  partition 
is  borne  on  the  margin  of  each  valve.  See  the 
annexed  diagrams.  A  variation  of  either  mode 
occurs  when  the  valves  break  away  from  the 
partitions,  these  remaining  attached  in  the  axis  of 
the  fruit.  This  is  called  Spptifragal&(^\\vs,^mo.^. 
One  form  is  seen  in  the  Morning-Glory  (Fig. 
400). 

373.  The  capsules  of  Rue,  Spurge,  and  some  others,  are  both  loculi- 
cidal and  septicidal,  and  so  split 
into  half-carpellary  valves  or  pieces. 

374.  The  Silique  (Fig.  401)  is 
the  technical  name  of  the  peculiar 
pod  of  the  Mustard  family;  which 
is  two-celled  by  a  false  partition 
stretched  across  between  two  pa- 
rietal placentae.  It  generally  opens 
by  two  valves  from  below  up- 
ward, and  the  placentae  with  the 
paititiou  are  left  behind  when  the 
valves  fall  off. 

375 .  A  Silicle  or  Pouch  is  only 
A  short  and  broad  silique,  like  that 
of  the  Shepherd's  Purse,  Fig.  402, 
403. 

Fig.  395.  Capsule  of  Iris,  with  loculicidal  dehiscence;  below,  cut  across. 
Fig.  396.   Pod  of  a  Marsh  St.  John's-wort,  with  septicidal  dehiscence. 
Fig.  397,  398.    Diagrams  of  the  two  modes. 

Fig.  399.   Diagram  of  septifragal  dehiscence  of  the  loculicidal  type.     400.  Same 
of  the  septicidal  or  marginicidal  type. 


124 


FRUIT. 


[SECTION    14. 


376.  The  Pyxis  is  a  pod  wliich  opens  by  a  circular  horizontal  line,  the 
upper  part  I'onniiig  a  Ud,  as  in  Purslane  (Fig.  404),  the  PLintain,  lieu- 
bane,  etc.  In  these  the  dehiscence  extends  all  round,  or  is  cir- 
cumscissile.  So  it  does  in  Amaranth  (Fig.  387),  forming  a  one- 
seeded  utricular  pyxis.  In  JelTersonia,  the  line  does  not  separate 
quite  round,  but  leaves  a  portion  for  a  liiuge  to  the  lid. 

377.  Of  Multiple  or  Collective  Fruits,  which  are  properly 


401 

axis  or 
mmute 


into  one  body  (as  is  seen  in 
the  Mulberry  (Fig.  408),  Pine- 
apple, etc.),  there  are  two  kinds 
with  special  names  and  of  pe- 
culiar structure. 
378.  The  Syconium  or  Fig- 
403        402  404  fruit  (Fig.  405,  406)  is  a  fleshy 

summit  of  stem,  hollowed  out,  and  lined  within  by  a  multitude  of 
flowers,  the  whole  becoming  pulpy,  and  in  the  common  fig,  luscious. 


379,   The  Strobile  or  Cone  (F'ig.  411),  is  the  peculiar  multiple  fruit 
of  Pines,  Cypresses,  and  the  like ;  hence  named  Conifercp,  viz.  cone-bearing 


Fig.  401.  Silique  of  a  Cailamine  or  Spring  Cress. 

Fig.  402.  Silicle  of  She])lier(rs  Purse.     403.  Same,  with  one  valve  removed. 

Fig.  404.    Pyxis  of  Purslane,  the  lid  detaching. 

Fig.  405.  A  fig-frnit  wlien  young.  406.  Same  in  section.  407.  ISIagnified  por- 
tion, a  slice,  showing  some  of  the  flowers. 

Fig.  408.  A  mulberry.  409.  One  of  the  grains  voimtrcr,  enlarged  ;  seen  to  l>e 
a  jiistill.ate  flower  with  caly.\  becoming  fleshy.  41U.  Same,  with  fleshy  calyx  cut 
:icross 


SECTION    15.] 


SEEDS. 


125 


plants.  As  already  shown  (313),  these  cones  are  open  pistik,  mostly  in 
the  t'oriii  of  flat  scales,  regularly  overlying  each 
other,  and  pressed  together  in  a  spike  or  liead. 
Each  scale  bears  one  or  two  naked  seeds  on  its 
iuucr  face.  When  ripe  and  dry,  tlie  scales  turn 
back  or  diverge,  aud  in  the  Pine  the  seed  peels 
oil"  and  falls,  generally  carryiug  with  it  a  wing,  a 
part  of  the  lining  of  the  scale, 


which  facilitates  the  dis[)er- 
sion  of  the  seeds  by  the  wind 
(Fig.  412,413).     InArbor- 
Vitaj,  the  scales  of  the  small 
cone  are  few,  and  not  very 
unlike   the   leaves.     In  Cy- 
press tiiey  are  very  thick  at 
the   top  and  narrow  at  the 
base,  so  as  to  make  a  peculiar  sort  of  closed  cone.     In  Juniper  and  Ked 
Cedar,  the  few  scales  of  the  very  small  cone  become  fleshy,  and  ripen  into 
a  fruit  which  closely  resembles  a  berry. 


Section  XV.    THE   SEED. 


380.  Seeds  are  the  final  product  of  the  flower,  to  which  all  its  parts  and 
offices  are  subservient.  Like  the  ovule  from  which  it  originates,  a  seed 
consists  of  coats  and  kernel. 

381.  The  Seed-coats  are  commonly  two  (320),  the  outer  and  the  inner. 
Fig.  414  shows  the  two,  in  a  seed  cut  tlirough  lengthwise. 
The  outer  coat  is  often  hard  or  crustaceous,  whence   it  is 
called  the  Testa,  or  shell  of  the  seed;  the  inner  is  almost  al- 
ways thin  and  delicate. 

382.  The  shape  and  the  markings,  so  various  in  different 
seeds,  depend  mostly  on  the  outer  coat.  Sometimes  this  fits 
the  kernel  closely  ;  sometimes  it  is  expanded  into  a  winff,  as  in  the  Trum- 
pet-Creeper (Fig.  415),  and  occasionally  this  wing  is  cut  up  into  shreds 
or  tufts,  as  in  the  Catalpa  (Fig.  416) ;  or  instead  of  a  wing  it  may  bear  a 
Coma,  or  tuft  of  long  and  soft  hairs,  as  in  the  Milkweed  or  Silkweed  (Fig. 
417).     The  use  of  wings,  or  downy  tufts  is  to  render  tlie  seeds  buoyant 


Fig.  411.  Cone  of  a  common  Pitch  Pine.  412.  Inside  view  of  a  .separated  scale 
or  open  carpel ;  one  seed  in  place:  413,  the  other  seed. 

Fig.  414.  Seed  of  a  Linden  or  Basswood  cnt  through  lengthwise,  and  ningnitied, 
the  parts  lettered:  a,  the  hilum  or  scar;  b,  the  outer  coal;  c,  the  iiiuer;  d,  ilie 
albumen;  e,  the  embryo. 


126 


SEEDS. 


[section  15. 


for  dispersion  by  the  winds.  This  is  clear,  nof  only  from  their  evident 
adaptation  to  this  purpose,  but  also  from  the  fact  that  winged  and  tufled 
seeds  are  found  only  in  fruits  that  split  open  at  maturity,  never  in  those 
that  remain  closed.  The  coat  of  some  seeds  is  beset  with 
iC^-^Awl  ^"^"S  ''^'""^  "'"  ^*^°'-  Cotton,  one  of  the  most  important  vege- 
table products,  since  it  forms  the  principal  clothing  of  the 


384. 


415  416 

larger  part  of  the  human  race,  consists  of  the  long  and  woolly  hairs  which 
thickly  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  seed.  There  are  also  crests  or  otiier 
appendages  of  various  sorts  on  certain  seeds.  A  few  seeds 
have  an  nd(lition;d,  but  more  or  less  incomplete  covering,  out- 
side of  the  real  seed-coats  called  an 

383.  Aril,  or  Arillus.  The  loose  and  transparent 
bag  which  encloses  the  seed  of  the  White  Water-Lily 
(Fig.  418)  is  of  this  kind.  So  is  the  viace  of  the 
nutmeg ;  and  also  the  scarlet  pulp  around  the  seeds 
of  the  Waxwork  (Celastrus)  and  Strawberry-bush 
(Euonymus).  The  aril  is  a  growth  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  seed-stalk,  or  from  the  placenta  when 
there  is  no  seed-stalk. 
A  short  and  thickish  appendage  at  or  close  to  the  liilum  in  certain 
seeds  is  called  a  Caruncle  or  Strophiole  (Fig.  419). 

385.  The  various  terms  wliich  define  the  position  or  direc- 
tion of  the  ovule  (erect,  ascending,  etc.)  apply  equally  to  the 
seed :  so  also  the  terms  anatropous,  orthotropous,  campylotro- 
pous,  etc.,  as  already  defined  (320,  321),  and  such  terms  as 

HiLUM,  or  Scar  left  M'here  the  seed-stalk  or  funiculus  falls 
away,  or  where  the  seed  was  attached  directly  to  the  placenta 
when  there  is  no  seed-stalk. 

Rhaphe,  the  line  or  ridge  which  runs  from  the  hilum  to  the  clialaza  in 
anatropous  and  amphitropous  seeds. 

Chalaza,  the  place  where  the  seed-coats  and  the  kernel  or  nucleus  are 
organically  connected,  —  at  the  hilum  in  orthotropous  and  eampylotropous 
seeds,  at  the  extremity  of  the  rhaphe  or  tip  of  the  seed  in  other  kinds. 

MiCROPYLE,  answering  to  the  Foramen  or  orifice  of  the  ovule.  Compare 
the  accompanying  figures  and  those  of  the  ovules.  Fig.  341-355. 

Fig.  415.  A  winged  seed  of  tlie  Tninipet-Creeper. 

Fig.  416.  One  of  Catalpa,  the  kernel  cut  to  .show  the  embryo. 

Fig.  417.  Seed  of  Milkweed,  with  a  Coma  or  tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  at  one  end. 

FiQ.  418.  Seed  of  Wliite  Water-Lily,  enclosed  in  its  aril. 

Fig.  419.  Seed  of  Ricinus  or  Ca.stor-oil  plant,  witli  c.iruncle. 


SECTION   15.] 


EMBRYO. 


127 


3S6.  The  Kernel,  or  Nucleus,  is  the  whole  body  of  the  seed  withiu  tlie 
coats.  Ill  many  seeds  the  ker- 
nel is  all  Embryo ;  in  others 
a  large  part  of  it  is  the  Al- 
bumen. For  example,  in  Fig. 
423,  it  is  wholly  embryo;  in 
Fig.  422,  all  but  the  small 
speck  (^(j)  is  albumen. 

387.  The  Albumen  or  Endosperm  of  the  seed  is  sufficiently  charac- 
terized and  its  ofHcc  cxphiiued  in  Sect.  111.,  31-35. 

388.  The  Embryo  or  Germ,  wliich  is  the  rudimentary  plantlet  and  the 
final  result  of  blossoming,  and  its  development  in  germination  have  been 
extensively  illustrated  in  Sections  II.  and  111.  Its  essential  parts  are  the 
Radicle  and  tlie  Cotyledons. 

389.  Its  Radicle  or  Caulicle  (the  former  is  the  term  long  and  gener- 
ally used  in  botanical  descriptions,  but  the  latter  is  the  more  correct  one, 
for  it  is  the  initial  stem,  wliich  merely  gives  origin  to  the  root),  as  to  its 
position  in  the  seed,  always  points  to  and  lies  near  the  niicropyle.  In  re- 
lation to  the  pericarp  it  is 

Superior,  when  it  points  to  the  apex  of  the  fruit  or  cell,  and 
Inferior,  when  it  points  to  its  base,  or  downward. 

390.  The  Cotyledons  have  already  been  illustrated  as  re- 
spects their  number,  —  giving  the  important  distiuction  of  Dicoty- 
ledonous, Polycotyledonous  and  Monocotyledonous  embryos  (36-43), 
—  also  as  regards  their  thickness,  whether  _/o/2tf^^o«s  or  _/^s/^^; 

and  some  of  the  very  various  shapes  and  adaptations  to  the  seed,  have  been 
figured.  They  may  be  straight,  or  folded,  or  rolled  up.  In  the  latter 
case  the  cotyledons  .may  be  rolled  up  as  it  were  from  one  margin,  as 
in  Calycanthus  (Fig.  424),  or  from  apex  to  base  in 
a  flat  spiral,  or  they  may  be  both  folded  {plicate) 
and  rolled  up  (j'onvolute),  as  in  Sugar  j\Iaj)le  (Fig. 
11.)  In  one  very  natural  family,  the  Crnciferae,  two 
ditierent  modes  prevail  in  the  way  the  two  cotyledons 
%  '■'■#  Vy  are  brought  round  against  the  radicle.  In  one  series 
they  are 


Seed  of  a  Violet  (anatropous)  :  a,  hiluin;  b,  rhaphe;  c,  chalaza. 
Seed  of  a  Larkspur  (also  anatropous);  tlie  parts  lettered  as  in  the  last. 
The  same,  cut  through  lengthwise:  a,  the  liilum;  c,  chalaza;  d,  outer 
inner  seed-coat;  /,  tlie  albuiiieii ;  g,  the  minute  embryo. 
Seed  of  a  St.  John's-wort,  divided  lengthwise;  here  the  whole  kernel 


Fig.  420. 

Fig.  421. 

Fig.  422. 
seed-coat;  e, 

Fig.  423. 
is  embryo. 

Fig.  424.     Eniliryo  of  Calycanthus;  upper  part  cut  away,  to  show  the  convolute 
cotyledons. 

Fig.  425. 
cotyledons. 


Seed  of  Bitter  Cress,  Barbarea,  cut  across  to  show  the  accumbent 
426.  Embryo  of  same,  whole. 


128 


VEGETABLE   LIFE  AND   WORK.  [silCTION    IG. 


Accumlfnt,  that  is,  the  edges  of  tlie  Hat  cot^leduus  lie  agaiust  llie  radicle, 
as  ill  Fig  425,  420.     In  auotlier  they  are 

lacumbenl,  or  with  the  j)Iaue  ot  the  cotyledons  brought  up  iu  the  opposite 
direction,  so  that  the  back  of  one  of  them  lies  agaiust 
the  radicle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  427,  428. 

391.    As  to  the  situation  of  the  embryo  with  respect 

to  the  albumen  of  the  seed,  when  this  is  present  in  any 

quantity,  the  embryo  may  be  Axile,  that  is  occupying 

428       the  axis  or  centre,  either  for  most  of  its  lengtli,  as  in 

Violet  (Fig.  429),  Barberry  (Fig.  4S),  and 

Pine  (Fig.  56) ;  and  iu  these  it  is  straight. 

But  it  nuiy  be  variously  curved  or  coiled 

iu   the   albumen,   as   in   Heliauthemum  

(Fig.  430),  in  a  Potato-seed  (Fig.  50),     ^I'll^     (|(Q)J 
or  Ouion-seed   (Fig.   60),  and  Linden 

(Fig.  414) ;  or  it  may  be  coiled  around       499  430  430 « 

the  outside  of  the  albumen,  partly  or  into  a  circle,  as  in  duckweed  (Fig. 
431,  4;i2j  and  in  Mirabilis  (Fig.  52).  The  latter  mode  prevails  in  Campylo- 
tropous  seeds.  In  the  cereal  grains,  such  as  Indian 
1*1  Corn  (Fig.  67)  and  Rice,  4o0"),  and  in  all  other 
_^^'  Grasses,  the  embryo  is  straight  and  applied  to  the 
431  432        outside  of  the  abundant  albumen. 

392.  The  matured  seed,  with  embryo  ready  to  germinate  and  reproduce 
the  kind,  coinpletes  the  cycle  of  the  vegetable  life  in  a  phanerogamous 
plant;  the  account  of  which  began  with  the  seed  and  seedling. 


Section  XVI.     VEGETABLE   LIFE   AND   WORK. 

393.  The  following  simple  outlines  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
plants  (3)  are  added  to  tbe  preceding  structural  part  for  the  better  prepar- 
ation of  students  in  descriptive  and  systematic  botany;  also  to  give  to  all 
learners  some  general  idea  of  the  life,  growth,  intunate  structure,  and  action 
of  the  beings  wliicli  compose  so  large  a  part  of  organic  nature.  Those  who 
would  extend  and  verify  the  facts  and  principles  here  outlined  will  tise  the 
Physiological  Botany  of  the  "  Botanical  Text  Book,"  by  Professor  Goodale, 
or  some  similar  hook. 

Fig.  427.  Seed  of  a  Si.symlinum,  cut  across  to  sliow  the  incumbent  cotyledons. 
428.    Embr5'o  of  the  same,  detarlieil  whole. 

Fig.  429.  Section  of  seed  of  Violet ;  anatropous  witli  straight  axile  embryo  in 
the  albumen.  4.30.  Section  of  seed  of  Rock  Rose,  Helianthemuin  Canadense  ; 
orthotropous,  with  curved  embryo  in  the  albumen.  430".  Section  of  a  grain  of 
Rice,  lengthwise,  showing  the  embryo  outside  the  albumen,  which  forms  the 
principal  bulk. 

Fig.  431.  Soeil  of  ;i  Chickweed,  campylntinjions.  •J32.  .Section  of  same,  show- 
ing slender  embryo  coiled  around  the  outside  ot  the  albumen  of  the  kernel. 


SECTION    IG.]  STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH.  129 


§  1.    ANATOMICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  GROWTH. 

394.  Growth  /.?  the  Increase  of  a  living  thing  in  size  and  substance.  It 
appears  so  natural  that  plants  and  auiinals  should  grow,  that  cue  rarely 
tliiuks  of  it  as  requiring  explanation.  It  seems  enough  to  say  that  a  thing 
is  so  because  it  grew  so.  Growth  from  the  seed,  the  germination  and  de- 
velopment of  an  embryo  into  a  plant  let,  and  at  length  into  a  mature  plant 
(as  illustrated  in  Sections  II.  and  III.),  can  be  followed  by  ordinary  obser- 
vation. But  the  eml)ryo  is  already  a  miniature  plantlet,  sometimes  with 
hardly  any  visible  distinction  of  parts,  but  often  one  which  has  already 
made  very  considerable  growth  in  the  seed.  To  investigate  the  formation 
and  growth  of  the  embryo  itself  requires  well-trained  eyes  and  hands,  and 
the  exjiert  use  of  a  good  compouud  microscope.  So  this  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  a  beginner. 

395.  Moreover,  although  observation  may  show  that  a  seedling,  weigh- 
ing only  two  or  three  grains,  may  double  its  bulk  and  weight  every  week 
of  its  early  growth,  and  may  iu  time  produce  a  huge  amount  of  vegetable 
matter,  it  is  still  to  be  asked  what  this  vegetable  matter  is,  where  it  came 
from,  and  by  what  means  plants  are  able  to  increase  and  accumulate  it,  and 
build  it  up  into  the  faln-ic  of  herbs  and  shrubs  and  lofty  trees. 

396.  Protoplasm.  All  this  fabric  was  built  up  under  life,  but  only  a 
small  portion  of  it  is  at  any  one  time  alive.  As  growth  proceeds,  life  is 
passed  on  from  the  old  to  the  new  parts,  much  as  it  has  passed  on  from 
parent  to  offspring,  from  generation  to  generation  in  unbroken  continuity. 
Protoplasm  is  the  connnon  name  of  that  plant-stuff  in  which  life  essentially 
resides.  All  growth  depends  upon  it;  for  it  has  the  peculiar  power  of 
growing  and  multiplying  and  building  up  a  living  structure,  —  the  animal 
no  less  than  the  vegetable  structure,  for  it  is  essentially  the  same  in  both. 
Indeed,  all  the  animal  protoplasm  comes  primarily  from  the  vegetable, 
which  has  the  prerogative  of  producing  it ;  and  the  protoplasm  of  plants 
furnishes  all  that  portion  of  the  food  of  animals  which  forms  their  flesh 
and  living  fabric. 

397"  The  very  simplest  plants  (if  such  may  specifically  be  called  plants 
rather  than  animals,  or  one  may  say,  the  simplest  living  things)  are  mere 
particles,  or  pellets,  or  threads,  or  even  indefinite  masses  of  protoplasm  of 
vague  form,  which  possess  powers  of  motion  or  of  changing  their  shape, 
of  imbibing  water,  air,  and  even  other  matters,  and  of  assimilating  these 
into  plant-stuff  for  their  own  growth  and  multiplication.  Their  growth 
is  increase  in  substance  by  incorporation  of  that  which  they  take  in  and 
assimilate.  Their  multiplication  is  by  spontaneous  division  of  their  sub- 
stance or  body  into  two  or  more,  each  capable  of  continuing  the  process. 

398.  The  embryo  of  a  phanerogamous  plant  at  its  beginning  (344)  is  es- 
sentially such  a  globule  of  protoplasm,  which  soon  constricts  itself  into  two 
and  more  such  globules,  which  hold  together  inseparably  in  a  row ;  then 
the  last  of  the  row  divides  without  separation  iu  the  two  other  planes,  to 

9 


130 


VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  \\0?Ai.         [.SECTION    IG. 


form  a  compound  mass,  each  grain  or  globule  of  wliicli  goes  on  to  double 
itself  as  it  grows ;  and  the  definite  shaping  of  this  still  increasing  mass 
builds  up  the  embryo  into  its  form. 

399.   Cell-w^alla    While  this  growth  was  going  on,  each  grain  of  the 
forming  structure  formed  and  clothed  itself  with  a  coat,  tiiin  and  trans- 
parent, of  something  different  from  protoplasm,  —  sometliing  which  hardly 
0and  only  transiently,  if  at  all,  partakes  of  the  life  and  action. 
The  protoplasm  forms  the  living  organism ;  the  coat  is  a  kind 
433         of  protective  covering  or  shell.     The   protoplasm,   like  the 
flesh  of  animals  which  it  gives  rise  to,  is  composed  of  four 

a        chemical  elements:  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  Oxvgen,  and  Nitro- 
I       gen.     The  coating  is  of  the  nature  of  wood  (is,  indeed,  that 
— '         which  makes  wood),  and  has  only  the  three  elements.  Car- 
bon, Hydrogen,  and  Oxygen,  in  its  composition. 

400.  Although  the  forming  structure  of  an  embryo  in 
the  fertilized  ovule  is  very  minute  and  difficult  to  see,  there 
are  many  simple  plants  of  lowest  grade,  abounding  in  pools 
of  water,  which  more  readily  show  the  earlier  stages  or  sim- 
plest states  of  plant -growth.  One  of  these,  wliich  is  common 
in  early  spring,  requires  only  moderate  magnifying  power 
to  bring  to  view  what  is  shown  in  Fig.  437.  In  a  slimy 
mass  which  holds  all  loosely  together,  little  spheres  of  green 
vegetable  matter  are  seen,  assembled  in  fours, 
and  these  fours  themselves  in  clusters  of  fours. 
A  transient  inspection  shows,  what  prolonged 
watching  would  confirm,  that  each  sphere  di- 
vides first  in  one  plane,  then  in  the  other,  to 
make  four,  soon  acquiring  the  size  of  the  original,  and  so  on, 
producing  successive  groups  of  fours.  These  pellets  each 
form  on  their  surface  a  transparent  wall,  like  that  just  des- 
cribed. The  delicate  wall  is  for  some  time  capable  of  expan- 
sive growth,  but  is  from  the  first  mucli  firmer  than  the 
protoplasm  within;  through  it  the  latter  imbibes  sur- 
rounding moisture,  which  becomes  a  watery  sap,  occupy- 
ing vacuities  in  the  protoplasmic  mass  ■which  enlarge  or 
run  together  as  the  periphery  increases  and  distends. 
When  full  grown  the  protoplasm  may  become  a  mere  lining 
to  the  wall,  or  some  of  it  central,  as  a  nucleus,  this  usually  connected  with 
the  wall-lining  by  delicate  threads  of  the  same  substance.  So,  when  full 
grown,  tlie  wall  witli  its  lining  —  a  vesicle,  containing  liquid  or  some 


QQ  QQ 

QQ  QQ 
QQ  ©Q 

437 


FiG.  433-436.  Figures  to  illustrate  the  earlier  stages  in  the  formation  of  an 
embryo;  a  single  mass  of  protoplasm  (Fig.  433)  dividing  into  two,  three,  and  then 
into  more  incijiieiit  cells,  which  bj-  continued  multiplication  build  up  an  embr\'0 

Fig.  437.  MaLrnified  view  of  some  of  a  simple  fresh  water  Alga,  the  Tetraspora 
lubrica,  eucli  sphere  of  which  may  answer  to  an  individual  plant. 


SECTION    IG.J  ANATOMICAL  STRUCTURE. 


131 


-\""l]|[l|VB!^"- 


bolid  matters  and  iu  age  mostly  air  — naturally  came  to  be  named  a  Cell. 
But  the  name  was  suggested  by,  and  first  used  only  for,  cells  iu  combination 
or  built  up  into  a  fabric,  much  as  a  wall  is  built  of  bricks,  that  is,  into  a 

401.  Cellular  Structure  or  Tissue.  Suppose  numerous  cells  like 
those  of  Fig.  4:37  to  be  heaped  up  Hke  a  pile  of  cannon-balls,  and  as  they 
grew,  to  be  compacted  together  while  soft  and  yielding;  they  would  flatten 
where  they  touched,  and  each  sphere, 
being  touched  by  twelve  surrounding 
ones  would  become  twelve-sided.  Fig. 
438  would  represent  one  of  them. 
Suppose  the  contiguous  faces  to  be 
united  into  one  wall  or  partition  be- 
tween adjacent  cavities,  and  a  cellular 
structure  would  be  formed,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  439.  Hoots,  stems,  leaves, 
and  the  whole  of  phan- 
erogamous plants  are  a 
fabric  of  countless  num- 
bers of  8\ich  cells.  No 
such  exact  regularity  in 
size  and  shape  is  ever 
actually  found ;  but  a  nearly  truthful  magnified  view  of  a  small  portion  of 
1  slice  of  the  flower-stalk  of  a  Calla  Lily  (Fig.  440)  shows  a  fairly  corres- 


ponding structure  ;  except  that,  owing  to  the  great  air-spaces  of  the  interior, 
the  fabric  may  be  likened  rather  to  a  stack  of  chimneys  than  to  a  solid 
fabric.  In  young  and  partly  transparent  parts  one  may  discern  the  cel- 
lular structure  by  looking  down  directly  on  the  surface,  as  of  a  form- 
ing root.     (Fig.  82,  441,  442). 

402.  The  substance  of  which  cell-walls  are  mainly  composed  is  called 
Cellulose.  It  is  essentially  tiie  same  in  the  stem  of  a  delicate  leaf  or 
petal  and  in  the  wood  of  an  Oak,  except  that  in  the  latter  the  walls  are 

Fig.  438.  Diagram  of  a  vegetable  cell,  such  as  it  would  be  if  when  splierical  it 
were  equally  pressed  by  similar  surrounding  cells  in  a  heap. 

Fig.  439.     Ideal  construction  of  cellular  tissue  so  formed,  in  section. 

Fig.  440.  Magnified  view  of  a  portion  of  a  transverse  slice  of  stem  of  Calla 
Lily,     The  great  spaces  are  tubular  air-channels  built  up  by  the  cells. 


152 


VEGETABLE   LIFE  AND  WORK.  [SECTION    IG. 


441 

cells  is  from 


to 


-g-^  of  an  inch 


mucli  thickened  and  tlie  calibre  siiuill.  The  protoplasm  of  each  living  cell 
appears  to  be  completely  shut  up  and  isolated  in  its  shell  of  cellulose  ;  but 
microscopic  invest  igaliou  has  brouglit  to  view,  in  many  cases,  minute 
threads  of  protoplasui  which  here  and  there  traverse 
the  cell-wall  througli  minute  pores,  thus  connecting 
the  living  portion  of  one  cell  with  that  of  adjacent 
cells.     (See  Fig.  447,  &c.) 

403.  The  hairs  of  plants  are  cells  formed  on  the 
surface ;  either  elongated  single  cells 
(liice  the  root-hairs  of  Fig.  441,  442), 
or  a  row  of  shorter  cells.  Cotton 
fibres  are  long  and  simple  cells  grow- 
ing from  the  surface  of  tlie  seed. 

404.  Tlie  size  of  the  cells  of  which 
common  jjlanis  are  made  up  varies 
from  about,  the  thirtieth  to  the  thou- 
sandth of  an  inch  in  diameter.  An 
ordinary  size  of  short  or  roundish 
;  so  that  there  may  generally  be  from 
27  to  125  millions  of  cells  in  the  compass  of  a  cubic  incli! 

405.  Some  parts  are  built  up  as  a  compact  structure  ;  in  others  cells 
are  arranged  so  as  to  build  up  regular  air-    ' "  JMrnrn r^i, fH r~\ f"^^^ 
channels,  as  in  the  stems  of  aquatic  and  other       " 
■water-loving  jilauts  (Fig.  440),  or  to  leave 
irregular  spaces,  as  in  the  lower  part  of  most 
leaves,  where  the  cells  only  here  and  there 
come  into  close  contact  (Fig.  443). 

406.  All  such  soft  cellular  tissue,  like 
this  of  leaves,  t1i:it  of  pith,  and  of  the  green 
bark,  is  called  ParenciiymAj  while  fibrous 
and  woody  parts  are  composed  of  Peosen- 
CHTMA,  that  is,  of  peculiarly  transformed 

407.  Strengthening  Cells.  Common  cellular  tissue,  which  makes  up 
the  wliole  structure  of  all  very  young  plants,  and  the  whole  of  Mosses 
and  other  vegetables  of  the  lowest  grade,  even  when  full  grown,  is  too 
tender  or  too  brittle  to  give  needful  st  rengtli  and  toughness  for  plants 
which  are  to  rise  to  any  considerable  height  and  support  themselves.  In 
these  needful  strength  is  imparted,  and  the  conveyance  of  sap  through  the 
plant  is  facilitated,  by  the  change,  as  they  are  formed,  of  some  cells  into 
thicker-walled  and  tougher  tuhes,  and  by  tlie  running  together  of  some  of 


Fig.  4n,  Much  majinified  small  portion  of  young  root  of  a  .seedling  Maple 
(such  as  of  Fig.  82);  and  442,  a  few  cells  of  .same  moie  niagnitied.  The  prolonga- 
tions from  the  back  of  s<inie  of  the  cells  are  root-hairs. 

F:g.  443.  Magiiilied  section  through  the  tliickuess  of  a  leaf  of  Florida  Star- 
Anise. 


SECTION    16.  J 


ANATOMICAL  STRUCTURE. 


133 


these,  or  the  prolongation  of  others,  into  hoUow  fibres  or  tubes  of  various  size. 
Two  sorts  of  sucii  trausformed  cells  go  together,  and  essentially  form  the 

408.  Wood.  This  is  found  in  all  common  herbs,  as  well  as  in  shrubs 
and  trees,  but  the  former  have  much  less  of  it  m  proportion  to  the  softer 
cellular  tissue.  It  is  formed  very  early  in  the  growth  of  the  root,  stem, 
and  leaves,  —  traces  of  it  appearing  iu  large  embryos  even  wiiile  yet  in  the 
seed.  Those  cells  that  lengthen,  and  at  the  same  time  thicken  their  walls 
form  the  proper  Woody  FiiiRE  or  Wood-cells  ;  those  of  larger  size  and 
thinner  walls,  which  are  thickened  only  in  certain  parts  so  as  to  have 
peculiar  markings,  and  which  often  are  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  a  row  of  cylindrical  cells, 
with  the  partitions  between  absorbed  or  bro- 
ken away,  are  called  Ducts,  or  sometimes 
Vessels.  There  are  all  gradations  between 
wood-cells  and  ducts,  and  between  both  these 
and  common  cells.  But  iu  most  plants  the 
three  kinds  are  fairly  distinct. 

409.  The  proper  cellular  tissue,  or  j)aren- 
chi/}na,  is  the  ground-work  of  root,  stem,  and 
leaves;  this  is  traversed,  chiefly  lengthwise, 
by  the  strengthening  and  conducting  tissue, 
wood-cells  and  duct-cells,  in  the  form  of 
bundles  or  threads,  which,  in  I  he  stems  and 
stalks  of  herbs  arc  fewer  and  comparatively 
scattered,  but  in  shrubs  and  trees  so  uumer- 
rous  and  crowded  that  iu  the  stems  and 
all  permanent  parts  they  make  a  solid  mass 
of  wood.  They  extend  into  and  ramify  iu 
the  leaves,  spreading  out  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  as  the  framework  of  ribs  and  veins, 
which  supports  the  softer  cellular  portion  or 
parenchyma. 

410.  Wood-Cells,   or  Woody   Fibres, 
consist  of  tubes,  commonly  between  one  and 
two  thousandths,  but  in  Pine-wood  sometimes  two  or  three  hundredths, 
of  an   inch  in  diameter.     Those  from   the  tough  bark  of  the   Basswood, 


Fig.  444.  Magnified  wood-cells  of  the  bark  (bast-cells)  of  Basswood,  one  and 
part  of  another.  44.5.  Some  wood-cells  from  the  wood  (and  below  part  of  a  duct); 
and  446,  a  detached  wood-cell  of  the  same;  equally  magnified. 

Fig.  447.  Some  wood-cells  fiom  Buttonwood,  Platanus,  highly  magnified,  a 
whole  cell  and  lower  end  of  another  on  the  left ;  a  cell  cut  half  away  lengthwise, 
and  half  of  another  on  the  riglit ;  some  pores  or  pits  (a)  seen  on  the  left;  while 
b  h  mark  sections  throngli  these  on  tlie  cut  surface.  When  living  and  young  the 
protoplasm  extends  into  these  and  b\-  minuter  perforations  connects  across  them. 
In  age  the  pits  become  open  passages,  facilitating  the  passage  of  sap  and  air. 


134 


VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND   WORK.         [SECTION    16. 


shown  in  Fig.  444,  are  only  the  fifteen-hundredth  of  an  inch  wide.  Tliose 
of  Buttouwood  (Fig.  447)  are  larger,  and  are  here  liiglily  magnified  besides. 
The  figures  sliow  the  way  wood-eclls  are  commonly  put  together,  namely, 
with  their  tapering  ends  overlapping  eaeh  other,  —  spUced  together,  as  it 
were,  —  thus  giving  more  strength  and  toughness.  In  hard  woods,  sueh 
as  Hickory  and  Oak,  the  walls  of  these  tubes  are  very  thick,  as  well  as 
dense ;  while  in  soft  woods,  such  as  White-Piue  and  Basswood,  they  are 
thinner. 

411.  Wood-cells  in  the  bark  are  generally  longer,  finer,  and  tougher 
than  those  of  the  proper  wood,-  and  appear  more  like  fibres.  For  example. 
Fig.  44G  represents  a  cell  of  the  wood  of  Basswood  of  average  length,  and 
Fig.  444  one  (and  part  of  another)  of  the  fibrous  bark,  both  drawn  to  the 
same  scale.  As  these  long  cells  form  the  principal  part  of  fibrous  bark,  or 
bast,  they  are  named  Bast-cells  or  Bast-fibres.  These  give  the  great  tough- 
ness and  flexibility  to  the  inner  bark  of  Basswood  (i.  e.  Bast-wood)  and  of 
Leatherwood ;  and  they  furnish  the  invaluable  fibres  of  flax  and  hemp ; 

the  proper  wood  of  their  stems 
being  tender,  brittle,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  processes  which 
separate  for  use  the  tough  and 
sleuder  bast-cells.  In  Leather- 
wood  (Dirca)  the  bast-cells  are 
remarkably  slender.  A  view  of 
one,  if  magnified  on  the  scale 
of  Fig.  444,  would  be  a  foot 
and  a  half  long. 
412.  The  wood-cells  of  Piues, 


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448 


449 


and  more  or  less  of  all  other  Coniferous  trees,  have  on  two  of  their  sides 
very  peculiar  disk-shaped  markings  (Fig.  44S-450)  by  which  that  kind  of 
wood  is  recognizable. 

413.  Ducts,  also  called  Vessels,  are  mostly  larger 
than  wood-cells :  indeed,  some  of  them,  as  in  Bed  Oak, 
have  calibre  large  enough  to  be  discerned  on  a  cross 
section  by  the  naked  eye.  They  make  the  visible  porosity 
of  such  kinds  of  wood.    This  is  ])articularly  the  case  with 

Dotted  ducts  (Fig.  451,  452),  the  surface  of  whicli 
appears  as  if  riddled  with  round  or  oval  pores.  Such 
ducts  are  commonly  made  up  of  a  row  oflarge  cells  more 
or  less  confluent  into  a  tube. 

Scalari/orm  ducts  (Fig.  458,  459),  common  in  Ferns, 
and  generally  angled  by  mutual  pressure  in  the  bundles, 

Fig.  448.  jNLagnified  bit  of  a  pine-shaving,  taken  parallel  with  the  silver  grain. 
449.  Separate  wliole  wood-cell,  more  magnifieil.  450.  Same,  still  more  magnified  j 
both  sections  represented  :  a,  disks  in  section,  b,  in  face. 

Fig.  451,  452.    A  large  and  a  smaller  dotted  duct  from  Grape-Vine. 


SECTION   IG.]  ANATOMICAL  STRUCTURE. 


135 


have  transversely  elongated  tliiu  places,  parallel  with  each  other,  giving 
a  ladder-like  appearance,  whence  the  name. 

Annular  ducts  (Fig.  457)  are  marked  with  cross  lines  or  rings,  which 
are  thickened  portions  of  the  cell- wall. 


Spiral  ducts  or  vessels  (Fig.  453-455)  have  thin  walls,  strengthened  by 
a  spiral  fibre  adherent  within.  This  is  as  delicate  and  as  strong  as  spider- 
web  :  when  uncoiled  by  pulling  apart, 
it  tears  up  and  annihilates  the  cell- 
wall.  The  uncoded  threads  are  seen 
by  gently  pulling  apart  many  leaves, 
such  as  those  of  Amaryllis,  or  the 
stalk  of  a  Strawberry  leaflet. 

Laliciferotis  ducts.  Vessels  of  the 
Latex,  or  Milk-vessels  are  peculiar 
branching  tubes  which  hold  latex  or 
uiilky  juice  in  certain  plants.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  see  them,  and  more 
so  to  make  out  their  nature.  They 
are  peculiar  in  branching  and  inosculating 
tubes,  running  in  among  the  cellular  tissue ;  and  they  are  very  small, 
except  when  gorged  and  old  (Fig.  460,  461). 


so  as  to  make  a  net-work  of 


Fig.  453,  454.  Spiral  ducts  which  uncoil  into  a  .single  thread.  455.  Spiral 
duct  which  tears  up  as  a  band.  456.  An  annular  duct,  with  variations  above. 
457.  Loose  spiral  duct  passing  into  annular.  458.  Scalariform  ducts  of  a  Fern; 
part  of  a  bundle,  prismatic  by  pressure.    459.  One  torn  into  a  band. 

Fig.  460.  Milk  Vessels  of  Dandelion,  witli  cells  of  the  common  cellular  tissue. 
46L  Others  from  the  same  older  and  gorged  with  milky  juice.  All  highly  mag- 
nified. 


136  VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  GROWTH.        [SECTION    16. 


§  2.    CELL-CONTENTS. 

414.  The  living  coutents  of  young  and  active  cells  arc  mainly  protoplasm 
with  water  or  waicry  sap  whicli  this  has  imbibed.  Old  and  effete  cells  are 
ol"ten  empty  of  solid  matter,  contaiuiug  only  water  with  wliatever  may  bo 
dissolved  in  it,  or  air,  according  to  the  time  and  circumstances.  All  tlie 
various  products  which  plauts  in  general  elaborate,  or  which  particular 
plants  specially  elaborate,  out  of  the  common  food  which  they  derive  from 
tlie  soil  and  the  air,  arc  contained  in  the  cells,  and  iu  the  cells  they  are 
produced. 

415.  Sap  is  a  general  name  for  the  principal  liquid  contents,  — Crude  sap, 
for  that  which  the  plant  takes  in,  Elaborated  sap  for  what  it  has  digested  or 
assimilated.     They  must  be  undistinguisli:d)ly  mixed  in  the  cells. 

410.  Among  the  solid  matters  into  which  cells  convert  some  of  their 
elaborated  sap  two  are  geuei-al  and  most  important.  These  are  Chlorophyll 
and  Starch. 

417.  Chlorophyll  (meaning  leaf-r/ reeii)  is  what  gives  the  green  color  to 
herbage.  It  consists  of  soft  grains  of  rather  complex  nature,  partly  wax-, 
like,  partly  protoplasmic.  These  abound  in  tlie  cells  of  all  common  leaves 
and  the  green  rind  of  plants,  wherever  exposed  to  the  light.  The  green 
color  is  seen  through  the  transparent  skin  of  the  leaf  and  the  walls  of  the 
containing  cells.  Chlorophyll  is  essential  to  ordinary  assimilation  in  plauts  : 
by  its  means,  under  the  iuliuence  of  sunlight,  the  plant  converts  crude  sap 
into  vegetable  matter. 

418.  Far  the  largest  part  of  all  vegetable  matter  produced  is  that  which 
goes  to  build  up  the  ])lanl's  fabric  or  cellular  structure,  either  directly  or 
indirectly.  There  is  no  one  good  name  for  this  most  important  product  of 
vegetation.  In  its  final  state  of  cell-walls,  the  permanent  fabric  of  herb 
and  shrub  and  tree,  it  is  called  Cellulose  (40S)  :  in  its  most  soluble  form 
it  is  Sugar  of  one  or  another  kind ;  in  a  less  soluble  form  it  is  Dextrine,  a 
kind  of  liquefied  starch :  iu  the  form  of  solid  grains  stored  np  in  the  cells 
it  is  Starch.  By  a  series  of  slight  chemical  changes  (mainly  a  variation  in 
the  water  entering  into  the  composition),  one  of  these  forms  is  converted 
into  another. 

419.  Starch  {Farina  oy  Fecula')  is  the  form  in  which  this  common  plant 
material  is,  as  it  were,  laid  by  for  future  use.  It  consists  of  solid  grains, 
somewhat  different  in  form  in  ditferent  plants,  in  size  varying  from  ^-^  to 
5^'g-o  of  an  inch,  partly  translucent  when  wet,  and  of  a  pearly  lustre.  From 
the  concentric  lines,  which  commoidy  appear  inider  the  microscope,  the 
grains  seem  to  be  made  np  of  layer  over  layer.  When  loose  they  are  com- 
monly oval,  as  in  potato-starch  (Fig.  4G2)  :  when  much  compacted  the 
grains  may  become  angular  (Fig.  468). 

420.  The  starch  iu  a  potato  was  produced  in  the  foliage.  In  the  soluble 
form  of  (Icxtrlne,  or  that  of  sugar,  it  was  conveyed  through  the  cells  of  the 
herbage  and  stalks  to  a  subterranean  shout,  and  there  stored  up  iu  tlic 


SECTION    IG.] 


CELL-CONTENTS. 


137 


tuber.     When  the  potato  sprouts,  the  starch  in  the  vicinity  of  developing 

l)uds  or  eyes  is  ehaugcd  buck  again,  lirst  into  mucilaginous  dextriuc,  then 

into  sugar,  dissolved 

in  the  sap,  and  in  this 

form  it   is   made  to 

How  to  the  growing 

parts,  where  it  is  laid 

down  into  cellulose 

or  cell-wall.  "02  463 

421.  Besides  these  cell-contents  which  arc  in  obvious  and  essential  rela- 
tion to  nutrition,  there  are  others  ihe  use  of  which  is  problematical.  Of 
such  the  commonest  are 

422.  Crystals.  These  when  slender  or  needle-shaped  are  called 
RuAPUiDES.  Tlicy  are  of  inorganic  matter,  usually  of  oxalate  or  phosphate 
or  sulphate  of  lime.     Some,  at  least  of  the  latter,  may  be  direct  crystallizg- 


469  464  470  465 

tions  of  what  is  taken  in  dissolved  in  the  water  absorbed,  but  others  must 
be  the  result  of  some  elaboration  in  the  plant.  Some  plants  have  hardly 
any  ;  others  abound  in  then),  especially  in  the  foliage  and  bark.  In  Locust- 
bark  almost  every  cell  holds  a  crystal ;  so  that  in  a  square  inch  not  thicker 
than  writing-paper  there  may  be  over  a  million  and  a  half  of  them.     When 

Fig.  462.  Some  magnified  starch-grains,  in  two  cells  of  a  potato.  463.  Some 
cells  of  the  albumen  or  floury  part  of  Indian  Com,  tilled  with  starch-grains. 

Fig.  464.  Four  cells  from  dried  Onion-peel,  each  liolding  a  crystal  of  different 
shape,  oiiie  of  them  twinned.  465.  Some  cells  from  stalk  of  Rhubarb-plant,  three 
containing  chlorophyll ;  two  (one  torn  across)  with  rhaphides.  466.  Rhaphides 
in  a  cell,  from  Arisrema,  with  small  cells  surrounding.  467.  Prisniati(!  crystals 
from  the  bark  of  Hickory.  468.  Glomerate  crystal  in  a  cell,  from  Beet-root. 
469.  A  few  cells  of  Locust-bark,  a  crystal  in  each.  470.  A  uetached  cell,  witb 
rhaphides  being  forced  out,  as  happens  when  put  in  water. 


138 


VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  WOEK.  [SECTION    16. 


needle-shiipcd  (rhapliidcs),  as  in  stalks  of  Calla-Lily,  Rhubarb,  or  Four- 
o'clock,  they  are  usually  packed  in  sheaf-like  buudlcs.     (Fig.  465,  46G.) 


§  3.    ANATOMY  OF  ROOTS  AND  STEMS, 

423.  This  is  so  nearly  the  same  that  an  account  of  the  internal  structure 
of  steins  may  serve  for  the  root  also. 

424.  At  the  begiuuiug,  either  in  the  embryo  or  in  an  incipient  shoot 
from  a  bud,  the  whole  stem  is  of  tender  cellular  tissue  or  parenchyma. 
But  wood  (consisting  of  wood-cells  and  ducts  or  vessels)  begins  to  be 
formed  in  the  earliest  growth  ;  and  is  from  the  first  arranged  in  two  ways, 
making  two  general  kinds  of  wood.  The  difference  is  obvious  even  in 
herbs,  but  is  more  conspicuous  in  the  enduring  stems  of  shrubs  and 
trees. 

425.  On  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  types  the  stems  of  all  plianero- 
gamous  plants  are  constructed.  In  one,  the  wood  is  made  up  of  separate 
threads,  scattered  liere  and  there  throughout  the  whole  diameter  of  the 
stem.  In  the  other,  the  wood  is  all  collected  to  form  a  layer  (in  a  slice 
across  the  stem  appearing  as  a  ring)  between  a  central  cellular  part  which 
has  none  in  it,  the  Pith,  and  an  outer  cellular  part,  the  Bark. 

426.  An  Asparagus-shoot  and  a  Corn-stalk  for  herbs,  and  a  rattan  for  a 
woody  kind,  represent  the  first  kind.  To  it 
belong  all  plants  with  monocotyledonous  em- 
bryo (40).  A  Bean-stalk 
and  ihe  stem  of  any  com- 
mon shrub  or  tree  rep- 
resent the  second  ;  and 


to  it  belong  all  plants  with  dicotyledonous  or  polycotyledonous  embryo. 
The  first  has  been  called,  not  very  properly,  Endogenous,  which  means  in- 
side-growing ;  the  second,  properly  enough.  Exogenous,  or  outside-growing. 
427.  Endogenous  Stems,  those  of  Monocotyls  (tO),  attain  their 
greatest  size  and  most  characteristic  development  in  Palms  and  Dragon- 
trees,  therefore  chiefly  in  warm  climates,  although  the  Palmetto  and  some 

Fig.  471.  Diagram  of  structure  of  Palm  or  Yucca.  472.  Stnictnre  of  a  Corn- 
stalk, in  transverse  ami  longitudinal  section.  473.  Same  of  a  small  Palm-stem. 
The  dots  on  the  cross  sections  represent  cut  ends  of  the  woody  Imiidhvs  or  threads. 


SECTION   IC] 


ANATOMY  OF  STEMS. 


139 


Yuccas  become  trees  along  the  soutliern  borders  of  the  United  States.  In 
such  stems  the  woody  bundles  are  more  numerous  and  crowded  toward  the 
circumference,  and  so  the  hai'der  wood  is  outside ;  while  in  an  exogenous 
stem  the  oldest  and  hardest  wood  is  toward  the  centre.  An  endogenous 
stem  has  no  clear  distinction  of  pitli,  bark,  and  wood,  concentrically  ar- 
ranged, no  silver  grain,  no  annual  layers,  no  bark  that  peels  off  clean  from 
the  wood.  Yet  old  stems  of  Yuccas  and  the  like,  that  continue  to  increase 
in  diameter,  do  form  a  sort  of  layers  and  a  kind  of  scaly  hark  when  old. 
Yuccas  show  well  the  curving  of  the  woody  bundles  (Fig.  471)  which 
below  ta])er  out  and  are  lost  at  the  rind. 

428.  Exogenous  Stenas,  those  of  Dicotyls  (37),  or  of  plants  coming 
from  dicotyledonous  and  also  polycotyledonous  embryos,  have 
a  structure  which  is  famihar  in  the  wood  of  our  ordinary 
trees  and  shrubs.  It  is  the  same  in  an  herbaceous  shoot 
(such  as  a  Tlax-stem,  Fig.  474)  as  in  a  Maple-stem  of  the 
first  year's  growth,  except  that  the  woody  layer  is  com- 
monly thinner  or  perhaps  reduced  to  a  circle  of  bundles. 
It  was  so  in  the  tree-stem  at  the  beginning.  The  wood  all 
forms  in  a  cylinder,  —  in  cross  section  a  ring  —  ai'ouud  a  cen- 
tral cellular  part,  dividing  the  cellular  core  within,  the  pith,  from  a  cellu- 
lar bark  without.     As  the  wood-bundles  increase  in  number  and  in  size. 


they  press  upon  each  other  and  become  wedge-shaped  in  the  cross  sec- 
tion ;  and  they  continue  to  grow  from  the  outside,  next  the  bark,  so  that 
they  become  very  thin  wedges  or  plates.  Between  the  plates  or  wedges 
are  very  thin  plates  (in  cross  section  lines)  of  much  compressed  cellular 
tissue,  which  connect  the  pith  with  the  bark.  The  plan  of  a  one-year-old 
woody  stem  of  this  kind  is  exhibited  in  the  figures,  which  are  essentially 
diagrams. 

429.   When  such  a  stem  grows  on  from  year  to  year,  it  adds  annually  a 


Pig.  474.  Short  piece  of  stem  of  Flax,  magnified,  showing  the  bark,  wood,  and 
pith  in  a  cross  section. 

Fig.  475.  Diagram  of  a  cross  section  of  a  very  young  exogenous  stem,  showing 
six  woody  bundles  or  wedges.  476.  Same  later,  with  wedges  increased  to  twelve. 
477.  Still  later,  the  wedges  tilling  the  space,  separated  only  by  the  thin  lines,  or 
medullary  rays,  ruDuing  from  pith  to  bark. 


140 


VEGETABLE   LIFE   AXD  WORK.  [SECTION    IG, 


layer  of  ■wood  outside  the  preceding  one,  between  that  and  the  barii.     This 
is  exogenous  growth,  or  outside-growing,  as  the  name  denotes. 

430.    Some  new  i)ark  is  formed  every  year,  as  well  as  new  wood,  the 

former  inside,  as  the  latter 
is  outside  of  that  of  the 
year  preceding.  The  ring 
or  zone  of  tender  forming  . 
tissue  between  the  hark 
and  the  wood  has  been 
called  the  Cambium  Layer. 
Cambium  is  an  old  name 
of  the  physiologists  for 
nutritive  juice.  And  this 
thin  layer  is  so  gorged 
with  rich  nutritive  sap 
when  spring  growth  is  re- 
newed, that  the  bark  then 
seems  to  be  loose  from 
the  wood  and  a  layer  of 
viscid  sap  (or  cambium)  to 
be  poured  out  between  the 
two.  But  there  is  all 
the  while  a  connection  of 
the  bark  and  the  wood  by 
delicate  cc\h,  rapidly  mul- 
tiplying and  growing. 

431.   The   Bark  of  a 

year-old  stem  consists  of 

beginning  next  the  wood,  — 

This  contains  some 


480 


three  parts,  more  or  less  distinct,  namely, 

1.  The  Liber  or  Fibrous  Bark,  the  Luier  Bark. 
wood-cells,  or  their  equivalent,  commonly  in  the  form  of  bast  or  bast-cells 
(111,  Fig.  44'4),  such  as  those  of  Basswood  or  Linden,  and  among  herbs 
those  of  flax  and  hemp,  which  are  spun  and  woven  or  made  into  cordage. 
It  also  contains  cells  which  are  named  sieve-ceWsi,  on  account  of  numerous 
slits  and  pores  in  their  walls,  by  which  the  protoplasm  of  contiguous  cells 
communicates.  In  woody  stems,  whenever  a  new  layer  of  wood  is  formed, 
some  new  liber  or  inner  bark  is  also  formed  outside  of  it. 

Fig.  473.  Piucu  of  a  .stem  of  Soft  Maple,  of  a  year  old,  cut  crosswise  and  length- 
wise. 

Fig.  479.    A  portion  of  the  same,  magnified. 

Fig.  4S0.  A  snnll  piece  of  the  same,  taken  froni  one  side,  reaching  from  tlie  bark 
to  the  pith,  and  highly  magnified:  a,  a.<mall  hit  of  the  jiith;  b,  .spiral  ducts  of  what 
is  called  the  mrdiillary  shrrith  ;  c,  the  wood;  d,  d,  dotted  ducts  in  the  wood; 
e,e,  annular  ducts;/,  the  liber  or  inner  bark;  (j,  the  green  bark;  //,  the  corky 
layer;  i,  the  skin,  or  epidermis;  j,  one  of  the  medullary  rays,  or  plates  of  silver 
grain,  seen  on  the  cross-sectiuu. 


SECTION   If).] 


ANATOMY  OF  STEMS. 


141 


2.  The  Guicen  Bark  or  Middle  Bark.  This  cousists  of  cellalar  tissue 
only,  and  contains  the  same  green  matter  {chlorophyll,  417)  as  the  leaves. 
In  woody  stems,  before  the  season's  growth  is  completed,  it  becomes  cov- 
ered by 

3.  The  Corky  Layer  or  Outer  Bark,  tlie  cells  of  which  contain  no 
chlorophyll,  and  are  of  the  nature  of  cork.  Common  cork  is  the  thick 
corky  layer  of  the  bark  of  the  Cork-Oak  of  Spain.  It  is  this  which  gives 
to  the  stems  or  twigs  of  shrubs  and  trees  the  aspect  and  the  color  peculiar 
to  each,  —  light  gray  in  the  Ash,  purple  in  the  Red  Maple,  red  in  several 
Dogwoods,  etc. 

4.  The  Epidermis,  or  skin  of  the  plant,  consisting  of  a  layer  of  thirk- 
sidcd  empty  cells,  which  may  be  considered  to  be  the  outermost  layer,  or 
in  most  herbaceous  stems  the  only  layer,  of  cork-cells. 


432.  The  green  layer  of  bark  seldom  grows  much  after  the  first  season. 
Sometimes  the  corky  layer  grows  and  forms  new  layers,  inside  of  the  old, 
for  years,  as  in  the  Cork-Oak,  the  Sweet  Gum-tree,  and  the  White  and  the 
Paper  Birch.  But  it  all  dies  after  a  while  ;  and  the  continual  enlargement 
of  the  wood  within  finally  stretches  it  more  than  it  can  bear,  and  sooner  or 
later  cracks  and  rends  it,  while  the  weather  acts  powerfully  upon  its  sur- 
face ;  so  the  older  bark  perishes  and  falls  away  piecemeal  year  by  year. 

433.  So  on  old  trunks  only  the  inner  bark  remains.  This  is  renewed 
every  year  from  within  and  so  kept  alive,  while  the  older  and  outer  layers 
die,  are  fissured  and  rent  by  the  distending  trunk,  weathered  and  worn,  and 
thrown  off  in  fragments,  —  in  some  trees  slowly,  so  that  the  bark  of  old 
trunks  may  acquire  great  thickness ;  in  others,  more  rapidly.  In  Honey- 
suckles and  Grape-Vines,  the  layers  of  liber  loosen  and  die  when  only  a 
year  or  two  old.  The  annual  layers  of  liber  are  sometimes  as  distinct  as 
those  of  the  wood,  but  often  not  so. 


Fig.  481.  Magnified  view  of  surface  of  a  bit  of  young  Maple  wood  from  which 
the  barlv  has  been  torn  away,  showing  the  wood-cells  and  the  bark-ends  of  medul- 
lary rays. 

Fig.  482.  Section  in  the  opposite  direction,  from  bark  (on  the  left)  to  beginning 
of  pith  (on  the  right),  and  a  medullary  ray  extending  from  one  to  the  other.. 


142  VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  WORK.         [SECTION   16. 

434.  The  Wood  of  an  exogenous  trunk,  having  the  old  growths  covered 
by  the  new,  remains  nearly  unclianged  in  age,  except  from  decay.  Wherever 
there  is  an  annual  suspension  and  renewal  of  growth,  as  in  temperate  cli- 
mates, the  annual  growths  are  more  or  less  distinctly  marked,  in  the  form 
of  concentric  rings  on  the  cross  section,  so  that  the  age  of  the  tree  may  be 
known  by  counting  tliem.  Over  twelve  hundred  layers  have  been  counted 
on  the  stumps  of  Sequoias  in  California,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  trees 
now  living  antedate  the  Christian  era. 

435.  Tiie  reason  why  the  annual  growths  are  distinguishable  is,  that  the 
wood  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  is  more  or  less  different  in  the 
size  or  character  of  the  cells  from  that  of  the  close.  In  Oak,  Chestnut,  etc., 
the  first  wood  of  the  season  abounds  in  dotted  ducts,  the  calibre  of  which 
is  many  times  greater  than  that  of  the  proper  wood-cells. 

43G.  Sap-wood,  or  Alburnum.  This  is  tlie  newer  wood,  living  or 
recently  alive,  and  taking  part  in  the  conveyance  of  sap.  Sooner  or  later, 
each  layer,  as  it  becomes  more  and  more  deeply  covered  by  the  newer  ones 
and  farther  from  the  region  of  growth,  is  converted  into 

437.  Heart-wood,  or  Duramen.  This  is  drier,  harder,  more  solid, 
and"  much  more  durable  as  timber,  than  sap-wood.  It  is  generally  of  a 
different  color,  and  it  exhibits  in  different  species  the  hue  peculiar  to  each, 
such  as  reddish  in  Ked-Cedar,  brown  in  Black-Walnut,  black  in  Ebony,  etc. 
The  cnange  of  sap-wood  into  heart-wood  results  from  the  thickening  of  the 
walls  of  the  wood-cells  by  the  deposition  of  hard  matter,  lining  the  tubes 
and  diminishing  their  calibre;  and  by  the  deposition  of  a  vegetable  coloring- 
matter  peculiar  to  each  species.  The  heart-wood,  being  no  longer  a  living 
part,  may  decay,  and  often  does  so,  without  the  least  injury  to  the  tree, 
except  by  diminishing  the  strength  of  the  trunk,  and  so  rendering  it  more 
Jiable  to  be  overthrown. 

438.  The  Living  Parts  of  a  Tree,  of  the  exogenous  kind,  are  only 
tnese :  first,  the  rootlets  at  one  extremity ;  second,  the  buds  and  leaves  of 
the  season  at  the  other;  and  third,  a  zone  consisting  of  the  newest  wood 
and  the  newest  bark,  connecting  the  rootlets  with  the  buds  or  leaves,  how- 
ever widely  separated  these  may  be,  —  in  the  tallest  trees  from  two  to  four 
hundred  feet  apart.  And  these  parts  of  the  tree  are  all  renewed  every  year. 
]Mo  wonder,  therefore,  that  trees  may  live  so  long,  since  they  annually  re- 
produce everything  that  is  essential  to  their  life  and  growth,  and  since  only 
a  very  small  part  of  their  bulk  is  alive  at  once.  The  tree  survives,  but 
notl'.ing  now  living  Tias  been  so  long.  In  it,  as  elsewhere,  life  is  a  transi- 
tory thing,  ever  abandoning  the  old,  and  renewed  in  the  young. 

§  4.    ANATOJIY  OF  LEAVES. 

439.  The  wood  in  leaves  is  the  framework  of  ribs,  veins,  and  veinlets 
(125),  serving  not  only  to  strengthen  them,  but  also  to  bring  in  the  sap, 
and  to  distribute  it  throughout  every  part.     The  cellular  portion  is  the 


SECTION   10.] 


ANATOMY  OF  LEAVES. 


143 


green  pulp,  and  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  green  layer  of  the  bark.  So  that 
tlie  leaf  may  properly  enough  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  expansion  of  the 
fibrous  and  green  layers  of  the  bark.  It  has  uo  proper  corky  layer ;  but 
the  whole  is  covered  by  a  transparent  skin  or  epidermis,  resembling  that 
of  the  stem. 

440.  The  cells  of  the  leaf  are  of  various  forms,  rarely  so  compact  as  to 
form  a  close  cellular  tissue,  usually  loosely  arranged,  at  least  in  the  lower 
part,  so  as  to  give  copious  intervening  spaces  or  air  passages,  communi- 
cating throughout  the  whole  interior  (Fig.  443,  483).  The  green  color  is 
given  by  tiie  chlorophyll  (417),  seen  through  the  very  transparent  walls  of 
the  cells  and  through  tlie  translucent  epidermis  of  the  leaf. 

441.  In  ordinary  leaves,  having  an  upper  and  under  surface,  the  green 
cells  form  two  distinct  strata,  of  different  arrangement.  Those  of  the 
upper  stratum  are  oblong  or  cylindrical,  and  stand  endwise  to  the  surface 
of  the  leaf,  usually  close  together,  leaving  hardly  any  vacant  spaces ;  those 
of  the  lower  are  commonly  irregular  in  shape,  most  of  Ihem  with  their 
longer  diameter  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  leaf,  and  are  very  loosely  ar- 
ranged, leaving  many  and  wide  air-chambers.  The  green  color  of  the 
lower  is  therefore  diluted,  and  paler  than  that  of  the  upper  face  of  the  leaf. 
Tlie  upper  part  of  the  leaf  is  so  constructed  as  to  bear  the  direct  action 


of  the  sunsliine  ;  the  lower  so  as  to  afford  freer  circulation  of  air,  and  to 
facilitate  transpiration.  It  communicates  more  directly  than  the  upper 
with  the  external  air  by  means  of  Siomates. 

442.  The  Epidermis  or  skin  of  leaves  and  all  young  shoots  is  best 
seen  in  the  foliage.  It  may  readily  be  stripped  off  from  the  surface  of  a 
Lily -leaf,  and  still  more  so  from  more  fleshy  and  soft  leaves,  such  as  those 


Fig.  483.  I\Iagiiified  section  of  a  leaf  of  White  Lily,  to  exliibit  the  cellular 
structure,  both  of  upper  and  lower  stratum,  the  air-passages  of  the  lov>'er,  and 
the  epidermis  or  skin,  in  section,  also  a  little  of  that  of  tlie  lower  face,  with  somo 
of  its  stomates. 


144 


VEGETApLE  LIFE  AND  WORK,         [SECTION   16. 


of  Houseleek.     The  epidermis  is  usually  composed  of  a  single  layer,  occa- 
sionally  of    two  or  three  layers,  of  empty 
cells,  mostly  of  irregular  outline.     The  sin- 
uous lines  which  traverse  it,  and  may  be  dis- 


cerned under  low  powers  of  the  microscope  (Fig.  487),  are  the  boundaries 
of  the  epidermal  cells. 

443.  Breathing-pores,  or  Stomates,  Stomata  (singular,  a  Stoma,  — • 
literally,  a  mouth)  are  openings  through  the  epidermis  into  the  air-chambers 
or  intercellular  passages,  always  between  and  guarded  by  a  pair  of  thin- 
walled  guai'dian  cells.  Although  most  abundant  in  leaves,  especially  on 
their  lower  face  (that  which  is  screened  from  direct  sunlight),  they  are 
fouud  on  most  other  green  parts.  They  establish  a  direct  communication 
between  the  external  air  and  that  in  the  loose  interior  of  the  leaf.  Their 
guardian  cells  or  lips,  which  are  soft  and  delicate,  like  those  of  the  green 
pulp  within,  by  their  greater  or  less  turgidity  open  or  close  the  orifice  as  the 
moisture  or  dryness  varies. 

444.  In  the  White  Lily  the  stomata  are  so  remarkably  large  that  they 
may  be  seen  by  a  simple  microscope  of  moderate  power,  and  may  be  dis- 
cerned even  by  a  good  liand  lens.  There  are  about  60,000  of  them  to  tbe 
square  inch  of  the  epidermis  of  the  lower  face  of  this  Lily-leaf,  and  only 
about  3000  to  the  same  space  on  the  upper  face.  It  is  computed  tbat  an 
average  leaf  of  an  Apple-tree  has  on  its  lower  face  about  100,000  of  these 
mouths. 


§5.     PLANT  FOOD  AND  ASSIMILATION. 

445.  Only  plants  are  capable  of  originating  organizable  matter,  or  the 
materials  which  compose  the  structure  of  vegetables  and  animals.  Tiic  es- 
sential and  peculiar  work  of  jjlants  is  to  take  up  portions  of  earth  and  air 
(water  belonging  to  both)  upon  which  animals  cannot  live  at  all,  and  to 
convert  them  into  something  organizable  ;  that  is,  into  something  that, 
uuder  life,  may  be  built  up  into  vegetable  and  animal  structures.  All  the 
food  of  animals  is   produced  by  plants.     Animals  live  upon  vegetables, 

Fig.  484.  Small  portion  of  epidermis  of  the  lower  face  of  a  Wliite-Lily  leaf, 
with  stomata. 

Fig.  485.  One  of  these,  more  magnified,  in  the  closed  state.  4S6.  Another 
stoma,  open. 

Fig.  487.  Small  jiortion  of  epidermis  of  the  Garden  Balsam,  liighly  magnified,, 
showing  very  sinuous-walled  cells,  and  three  stomata. 


SECTION    IG.]       PLANT  FOOD  AND  ASSIMILATION.  145 

directly  or  at  second  hand,  the  carnivorous  upon  the  herbivoruiis ;  ami 
vegetables  live  upon  earth  and  air,  immediately  or  at  second  hand. 

446.  The  Food  of  plants,  then,  primarily,  is  earth  and  air.  This  is 
evident  enough  from  the  way  in  which  they  live.  Many  plants  will  flourish 
in  pure  sand  or  powdered  chalk,  or  on  the  bare  face  of  a  rock  or  wall, 
watered  merely  with  rain.  And  almost  any  plant  may  be  made  to  grow 
from  the  seed  in  moist  sand,  and  increase  its  weight  many  times,  even  if  it 
will  not  come  to  perfection.  Many  naturally  live  suspended  from  the 
branches  of  trees  high  in  the  air,  and  nourished  by  it  alone,  never  hav- 
ing any  connection  with  the  soil;  and  some  which  naturally  grow  on  the 
ground,  like  the  Ijive-forever  of  the  gardens,  when  pulled  up  by  the  roots 
and  hung  in  the  air  will  often  flourish  the  whole  sumuier  long. 

447.  It  is  true  that  fast-growing  plants,  ov  those  which  produce  much 
vegetable  matter  in  one  season  (especially  in  such  concentrated  form  as 
to  be  useful  as  food  for  man  or  the  higher  animals)  will  come  to  maturity 
tnly  in  an  enriched  soil.  But  what  is  a  rich  soil?  One  which  contains 
decomposing  vegetable  matter,  or  some  decomposing  animal  matter;  that 
is,  in  cither  case,  some  decomposing  organic  matter  formerly  produced  by 
plants.  Aided  by  this,  grain-bearing  and  other  important  vegetables  will 
grow  more  rapidly  and  vigorously,  and  make  a  greater  amount  of  nourish- 
ing matter,  than  they  could  if  left  to  do  the  whole  work  at  once  from  the 
beginning.  So  that  in  these  cases  also  all  the  organic  or  organizable  matter 
was  made  by  plants,  and  made  out  of  earth  and  air.  Far  the  larger  and 
most  essential  jiart  was  air  and  water. 

448.  Two  kinds  of  material  are  taken  in  and  used  by  plants;  of  which 
the  first,  although  more  or  less  essential  to  perfect  plant-growth,  are  in  a 
certain  sense  subsidiary,  if  not  accidental,  viz. :  — 

Earthy  constituents,  those  which  ai-e  left  in  the  form  of  ashes  when  a  leaf 
or  a  stick  of  wood  is  burned  in  the  open  air.  These  consist  of  some  potash 
(or  soda  in  a  marine  plant),  some  silex  (the  same  as  flint),  and  a  little  lime, 
alumine,  or  magnesia,  iron  or  manrjanese,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.,  —  some 
or  all  of  these  in  variable  and  usually  minute  proportions.  They  are  such 
materials  as  happen  to  be  dissolved,  in  small  quantity,  in  the  water  taken 
up  by  the  roots ;  and  when  that  is  consumed  by  the  plant,  or  flies  off"  pure 
(as  it  largely  does)  by  exlialation,  the  earthy  matter  is  left  behind  in  the 
cells, — just  as  it  is  left  incrusting  the  sides  of  a  teakettle  in  which  much 
hard  water  has  been  boiled.  Naturally,  therefore,  there  is  more  earthy 
matter  (i.  e.  more  ashes)  in  the  leaves  than  in  any  other  part  (sometimes 
as  much  as  seven  per  cent,  when  the  wood  contains  only  two  per  cent) ; 
because  it  is  through  the  leaves  that  most  of  the  water  escapes  from  the 
plant.  Some  of  this  earthy  matter  incrusts  the  cell-walls,  some  goes  to 
form  crystals  or  rlmphides,  which  abound  in  many  plants  (422),  some 
enters  into  certain  special  vegetable  products,  and  some  appears  to  be  ne- 
cessary to  the  well-being  of  the  higher  orders  of  jilants,  although  formuig 
no  necessary  oart  of  the  proper  vegetable  structure. 

10 


146  VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  WORK.         [SECTION    16. 

The  essential  constituents  of  the  organic  fabric  are  those  which  are  dissi- 
pated into  air  and  vapor  in  complete  burning.  They  make  up  from  88  to 
99  per  cent  of  the  leaf  or  stem,  and  essentially  the  whole  both  of  tlie  cellu- 
lose of  the  walls  and  the  protoplasm  of  the  contents.  Burning  gives  these 
materials  of  the  plant's  structure  back  to  the  air,  mainly  in  the  same  condi- 
tion in  which  the  plant  took  them,  the  same  condition  which  is  reached 
more  slowly  in  natural  decay.  The  chemical  elements  of  the  cell-walls  (or 
cellulose,  402),  as  also  of  starch,  sugar,  and  all  that  class  of  organizable 
cell-material,  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  (899).  The  same,  with 
nitrogen,  are  the  constituents  of  protoplasm,  or  the  truly  vital  part  of 
vegetation. 

449.  These  chemical  elements  out  of  which  organic  matters  are  com- 
posed are  supplied  to  the  plant  by  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  some  combina- 
tions of  nitrogen. 

Water,  far  more  largely  than  anything  else,  is  imbibed  by  the  roots  ;  also 
more  or  less  by  the  foliage  in  the  form  of  vapor.  Water  consists  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen;  and  cellulose  or  plant-wall,  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  however 
different  in  their  qualities,  agree  in  containing  these  two  elements  in  the 
same  relative  proportions  as  in  water. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  (Carbon  dioxide)  is  one  of  the  components  of  the  atmos- 
phere, —  a  small  one,  ordinarily  only  about  g^oo'  ^'^  ^^^  bulk,  —  sufficient 
for  the  supply  of  vegetation,  but  not  enough  to  be  injurious  to  animals,  as  it 
would  be  if  accumulated.  Every,  current  or  breeze  of  air  brings  to  the  leaves 
expanded  in  it  a  succession  of  fresh  atoms  of  carbonic  acid,  which  it  absorbs 
through  its  multitudinous  breathing-pores.  This  gas  is  also  taken  up  by 
water.  So  it  is  brought  to  the  ground  by  rain,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  roots 
of  plants,  either  as  dissolved  in  the  w^ater  they  imbibe,  or  in  the  form  of 
gas  in  the  interstices  of  the  soil.  Manured  ground,  that  is,  soil  containing 
decomposing  vegetable  or  animal  matters,  is  constantly  giving  out  this  gas 
into  the  interstices  of  the  soil,  whence  the  roots  of  the  growing  crop  absorb 
it.  Carbonic  acid  thus  supplied,  primarily  from  the  air,  is  the  source  of  the 
carbon  which  forms  much  the  largest  part  of  the  substance  of  every  plant. 
The  proportion  of  carbon  may  be  roughly  estimated  by  charring  some  wood 
or  foliage ;  that  is,  by  heating  it  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  so  as  to  decom- 
pose and  drive  off  all  the  other  constituents  of  the  fabric,  leaving  the  large 
bulk  of  charcoal  or  carbon  behind. 

Nitrogen,  the  remaining  plant-element,  is  a  gas  which  makes  up  more 
than  two  thirds  of  the  atmosphere,  is  brought  into  the  foliage  and  also  to 
the  roots  (being  moderately  soluble  in  water)  in  the  same  ways  as  is  car- 
bonic acid.  The  nitrogen  which,  mixed  with  oxygen,  a  little  carbonic  acid, 
and  vapor  of  water,  constitutes  the  air  we  breathe,  is  the  source  of  thig 
fourth  plant-element.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  if  ordinary  plants  can  usa 
any  nitrogen  gas  directly  as  food ;  that  is,  if  they  can  directly  cause  it  to 
combine  with  the  other  elements  so  as  to  form  protoplasm.  But  when  com- 
bined with  hydrogen  (forming  ammonia),  or  when  combined  with  oxygen 


SECTION    16.]      PLANT   FOOD  AND  ASSIMILATION.  147 

(nitric  acid  and  nitrates)  plants  appropriate  it  with  avidity.  And  several 
natural  processes  are  going  on  in  whicli  nitrogen  of  the  air  is  so  combiued 
and  supplied  to  the  soil  in  forms  directly  available  to  the  plant.  The  most 
eflScieut  is  nitrification,  the  formation  of  nitre  (nitrate  of  potash)  in  the  soil, 
especially  in  all  fertile  soils,  througli  the  action  of  a  bacterial  ferment. 

450.  Assimilation  in  plants  is  tiie  conversion  of  these  inorganic  sub- 
stances—  essentially,  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  some  form  of  comi)iued  or 
combinubL'  nitrogen  —  into  vegetable  matter.  This  most  dilute  food  the 
living  plant  concentrates  and  assimilates  to  itself.  Only  plants  are  capable 
of  converting  these  mineral  into  organizable  matters ;  and  this  all-important 
work  is  done  by  them  (so  far  as  all  ordinary  vegetation  is  concerned)  only 

451.  Under  the  light  of  the  sun,  anting  upon  green  parts  or  fulic/ge,  that 
is,  upon  the  chlorophyll,  or  upon  what  answers  to  chlorophyll,  which  these 
parts  contain.  The  sun  in  some  way  supplies  a  power  which  enables  the 
living  plant  to  originate  these  peculiar  cliemical  combinations,  —  to  organ- 
ize matter  into  forms  which  are  alo'ie  capable  of  being  endowed  with  life. 
The  proof  of  this  proposition  is  simple ;  and  it  shows  at  the  same  time,  in 
t!i3  simplest  way,  what  a  plant  does  with  the  water  and  carbonic  acid  it 
consumes.  Namely,  1st,  it  is  only  in  sunshine  or  bright  dayhght  that  the 
green  parts  of  plants  give  out  oxygen  gas,  —  then  they  regularly  do  so; 
and  2J,  the  giving  out  of  this  oxygen  gas  is  required  to  render  the  chemical 
composition  of  water  and  carbonic  acid  the  same  as  that  of  cellulose,  that 
is,  of  the  plant's  permanent  fabric.  This  shows  why  plants  spread  out  so 
lar^e  a  surface  of  foliage.  Leaves  are  so  many  workshops,  full  of  ma- 
chinery worked  by  suu-power.  The  emission  of  oxygen  gas  from  any 
sun-lit  foliage  is  seen  by  placing  some  of  this  under  water,  or  by  using  an 
aquatic  plant,  by  collecting  the  air  bubbles  which  rise,  and  by  noting  tiiat 
a  taper  burns  brighter  in  this  air.  Or  a  leafy  plant  in  a  glass  globe  may 
03  supplied  with  a  certain  small  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  after 
proper  exposure  to  sunshine,  the  air  ou  being  tested  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain less  carbonic  acid  and  just  so  much  the  more  oxygen  gas. 

452.  Now  if  the  plant  is  making  cellulose  or  any  equivalent  substance, 
—  that  is,  is  making  the  very  materials  of  its  fabric  and  growth,  as  must 
generally  be  the  case,  —  all  this  oxygen  gas  given  off  by  the  leaves  comes 
from  th3  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  taken  in  by  the  plant.  For  cellu- 
lose, and  also  starch,  dextrine,  sugar,  and  the  like  are  composed  of  carbon 
along  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  just  the  proportions  to  form  water. 
And  the  carbonic  acid  and  water  taken  in,  less  the  oxygen  wiiich  the  carbon 
l).-ought  with  it  as  carbonic  acid,  and  which  is  given  off  from  the  foliage  in 
sunshine,  just  represen's  the  manufactured  article,  cellulose. 

453.  It  comes  to  t'.ic  same  if  the  first  product  of  assimilation  is  sugar, 
or  dextrias  which  is  a  sort  of  soluble  starch,  or  starch  itself.  And  in  the 
plant  all  those  forms  arc  rradily  changed  into  one  another.  In  the  tiny 
seedling,  as  fast  as  this  assimilated  matter  is  formed  it  is  used  in  growth, 
that  is,  in  the  formation  of  cell-walls.     After  a  time  some  or  much  of 


148  VEGETABLH   MKR  AND  WORK.  [SECTION    16. 

tlic  product,  limy  be  accumulated  in  store  f(jr  I'uturc  growth,  us  iu  tlie  root 
of  the  turui|),  or  the  tuber  ot  the  potato,  or  tlic  seed  of  com  or  pulse. 
This  store  is  luuiuly  iu  the  form  of  starch.  When  growtii  begins  anew, 
this  starch  is  turucd  iuto  dextrine  or  into  sugar,  in  licjuid  form,  and  used 
to  nourish  and  build  up  the  germinating  embryo  or  the  uew  shoot,  where 
it  is  at  length  converted  into  cellulose  and  used  to  build  up  plant-structure. 

451.  But  that  which  builds  plant-fabric  is  not  the  cellular  structure 
itself;  the  work  is  dune  by  the  living  protoplasm  which  dwells  within  the 
walls.  This  also  has  to  take  and  to  assimilate  its  proper  food,  for  its  own 
maintenance  and  growth.  Protoplasm  assimilates,  along  with  the  other 
three  elements,  the  nitrogen  of  the  plant's  food.  This  comes  primarily  from 
the  vast,  stock  in  the  atmosphere,  but  mainly  through  the  earth,  where  it  is 
accunmlated  through  various  processes  in  a  fertile  soil,  —  mainly,  so  far  as 
concerns  crops,  from  the  decomposition  of  former  vegetables  and  animals. 
This  protoplasm,  which  is  formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  simpler  cellulose, 
is  essentially  the  same  as  the  Hesh  of  animals,  and  the  source  of  it.  It  is 
the  common  basis  of  vegetable  and  of  animal  life. 

435.  Su  plant-assimilation  produces  all  the  food  and  fabric  of  animals. 
Starch,  sugar,  the  oils  (which  are,  as  it  were,  these  farinaceous  matters 
more  deoxidated),  chlorophyll,  and  the  like,  and  even  cellulose  itself,  form 
the  food  of  herbivorous  animals  and  much  of  the  food  of  man.  When 
digested  they  enter  iuto  the  blood,  undergo  various  transformations,  and  are 
at  length  decomposed  iuto  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  exhaled  from  the 
lungs  in  respiration,  —  in  other  words,  arc  given  back  to  the  air  by  the  ani- 
mal as  the  very  same  materials  which  the  plant  took  from  the  air  as  its  food, 
—  are  given  back  to  the  air  in  the  same  form  that  they  would  have  taken  if 
the  vegetable  matter  had  been  left  to  decay  where  it  grew,  or  if  it  had  been 
set  on  fire  and  burned  ;  and  with  the  same  result,  too,  as  to  the  heat,  —  the 
heat  in  this  case  producing  and  maintaining  the  proper  temperature  of  the 
animal. 

456.  The  protoplasm  and  other  products  containing  nitrogen  (gluten, 
legumine,  etc.),  and  which  are  most  accumulated  in  grains  and  seeds  (for 
the  nourishment  of  their  embryos  when  they  germhiate),  compose  the  most 
nutritious  vegetable  food  consumed  by  animals;  they  form  their  proper 
flesh  and  sinews,  while  the  earthy  constituents  of  the  plant  form  the  earthy 
matter  of  the  bones,  etc.  At  length  decomposed,  in  the  secretions  and 
excretions,  these  nitrogenous  constituents  are  through  successive  changes 
finally  resolved  into  mineral  matter,  into  carbonic  acid,  w-ater,  and  ammonia 
or  some  nitrates,  —  into  exactly  or  essentially  the  same  materials  which  the 
plants  took  up  and  assimilated.  Animals  depend  upon  vegetables  abso- 
lutely and  directly  for  their  subsistence;  also  indirectly,  because 

457.  Plants  purify  the  air  for  animals.  In  the  very  process  by  which  they 
create  food  they  take  from  the  air  carbonic  acid  gas,  injurious  to  animal  res- 
piration, which  is  continually  poured  into  it  by  the  l)reatliing  of  all  animals, 
by  all  decay,  by  the  burumg  of  fuel  and  all  other  oi-dmary  combustion;  and 


SECTION   IC] 


MOVEMENTS. 


149 


they  restore  an  equal  bulk  of  life-sustaiuing  oxygen  needful  forthe  respiration 
of  auiaials,  —  needful,  also,  in  a  certain  measure,  for  plants  in  any  work  they 
do.     For  in  plants,  as  well  as  in  animals,  work  is  done  at  a  certain  cost. 


§  6.    PLANT  WORK  AND  MOVEMENT. 

458.  As  tlie  organic  basis  and  truly  living  material  of  plants  is  identical 
with  that  of  animals,  so  is  the  life  at  bottom  essentially  the  same ;  but  in 
animals  something  is  added  at  every  rise  from  the  lowest  to  highest  organ- 
isms.    Action  and  work  in  living  behigs  require  movement. 

459.  Living  things  move ;  those  not  living  are  only  moved.  Plants 
move  as  truly  as  do  animals.  The  latter,  nourished  as  they  are  upon  or- 
ganized food,  which  has  been  prepared  for  them  by  plants,  and  is  found 
only  here  and  there,  must  needs  have  the  power  of  going  after  it,  of  collect- 
ing it,  or  at  least  of  taking  it  in ;  which  requires  them  to  make  spontaneous 
movements.  But  ordinary  plants,  with  their  wide-spread  surface,  always 
in  contact  with  the  earth  and  air  on  which  they  feed,  —  the  latter  every- 
where the  same,  and  the  former  very  mucli  so,  —  might  be  thought  to  liave 
no  need  of  movement.  Ordinary  plants,  indeed,  have  no  locomotion;  some 
float,  but  most  are  rooted  to  the  spot  where  tliey  grew.  Yet  probably  all 
of  them  execute  various  movements  which  must  be  as  truly  self-caused  as 
are  those  of  the  lower  grades  of  animals,  —  movements  which  are  over- 
looked only  because  too  slow  to  be  directly  observed.  Neveitheless,  the 
motion  of  the  hour-hand  and  of  the  minute-hand  of  a  watch  is  not  less  real 
than  tliat  of  the  second-hiaid. 

460.  Locomotion,  iloreover,  many  microscopic  plants  living  in  water 
are  seen  to  move  freely,  if  not  briskly,  under  the  microscope ;  and  so  like- 
wise do  more  conspicuous 
aquatic  plants  in  their  embryo- 
like or  seedling  state.  Even  at 
maturity,  species  of  Oscillaria 
(such  as  in  Fig.  4S8,  minute 
worm-shaped  plants  of  fresh  ,  ^ 
waters,  taking  this  name  from  -<5^m£rf55^ 
their  oscillating  motions)  freely  488 

execute   three    different  kinds 

of  movement,  the  very  delicate  investing  coat  of  cellulose  not  impeding  the 
action  of  the  living  protoplasm  within.  Even  when  this  coat  is  firmer  and 
hardened  with  a  siliceous  deposit,  such  crescent-shapod  or  boat-shnped 
one-celled  plants  as  Closterium  or  Ndtncula  are  able  in  some  way  to  move 
along  fro;)i  jilace  to  [ilace  in  the  water. 

4G1.  Movements  in  Cells,  or  Cell-circulation,  sometimes  called  Cy- 
closis,  has  been  dit.-ctcd  in  so  many  plants,  especially  in  comparatively 


Fig.  iSS.   Two  iudiviJuals  of  au  Oscillaria,  magnitied. 


150 


VEGETABLE  LIFE  AND  WORK.         [SECTION   16. 


transparent  aquatic  plants  aad  in  hairs  ou  the  surface  of  land  plants  (where 
it  is  easiest  to  observe),  that  it  may  be  inferred  to  take  place  in  all  cells 
during  the  most  active  i)art  of  their  life.  This  motion  is  commonly  a 
streaming  movement  of  threads  of  protoplasm,  carrying 
along  solid  granules  by  which  the  action  may  be  ob- 
served and  the  rate  measured,  or  in  some  cases  it  is  a 
rotation  of  the  whole  protoplasmic  contents  of  the  cell. 
A  comparatively  low  magnifying  power  will  show  it  in 
the  cells  of  Nitella  and  Cliara  (which  are  cryptogamous 
plants)  ;  and  under  a  moderate  power  it  is  well  seen  in 
the  Tape  Grass  of  fresh  water,  Vallisneria,  and  in  Naias 
flexilis  (Fig.  489).  Minute  particles  and  larger  green- 
ish globules  arc  seen  to  be  carried  along,  as  if  in  a  cur- 
rent, around  the  cell,  passing  up  one  side,  across  the 
end,  down  the  other  and  across  the  bottom,  completing 
the  circuit  sometimes  within  a  minute  or  less  when  well 
warmed.  To  see  it  well  in  the  cell,  which  like  a  string 
of  beads  form  the  hairs  on  the  stamens  of  Spidcrwort, 
a  high  magnifying  power  is  needed. 

462.    Transference  of  Liquid  from  Cell  to  Cell, 

and  so  from  place  to  place  in  the  plant,  the  absorption 

of  water  by  the   rootlets,   and   the    exhalation  of  the 

greater  part  of  it  from  the  foliage,  —  these  and  similar 

operations  are   governed   by   the  physical  laws  which 

regulate  the  diffusion  of  fluids,  but  are  controlled  by  the 

action  of  living  protoplasm.    Equally  under  vital  control 

*^^  are  the  various  chemical  transformations  which  attend 

assimilation  and  growth,  and  which  involve  not  only  molecular  movements 

but  conveyance.      Growth  itself,  which  is  the  formation  and  shaping  of 

new  parts,  implies  the  direction  of  internal  activities  to  definite  ends. 

403.  Movements  of  Organs.  The  living  protoplasm,  in  all  but  the 
lowest  grade  of  plants,  is  enclosed  and  to  common  appearance  isolated  in 
separate  cells,  the  walls  of  which  can  only  in  their  earliest  state  be  said  to 
be  alive.  Still  plants  are  able  to  cause  the  protoplasm  of  adjacent  cells 
to  act  in  concert,  and  by  their  combined  action  to  effect  movements  in 
roots,  stems,  or  leaves,  some  of  them  very  slow  and  gradual,  some  manifest 
and  striking.  Such  movements  are  brought  about  through  individually 
minute  changes  in  the  form  or  tension  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  innumera- 
ble cells  which  make  up  the  structure  of  the  organ.  Some  of  the  slower 
movements  are  effected  during  growth,  and  may  be  explained  by  inequality 
of  growth  on  the  two  sides  of  the  bending  organ.  But  the  more  rapid 
changes  of  position,  and  some  of  the  slow  ones,  cannot  be  so  explained. 


Fig.  489.   A  few  cells  of  a  leaf  of  Naias  flexilis,  highly  maguiiied:  the  arrows 
indicate  the  courses  of  the  circulating  currents. 


SECTION    IG.]  MOVEMENTS.  151 

404.  Root-movements.  lu  its  growth  a  root  turns  or  bends  away 
from  the  liglit  and  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth,  so  that  in  lengthening 
it  buries  itself  in  the  soil  where  it  is  to  live  and  act.  Every  one  must 
have  observed  this  in  the  germination  of  seeds.  Careful  observations  have 
sliowu  that  tlie  tip  of  a  growing  root  also  makes  little  sweeps  or  short 
movements  from  side  to  side.  By  this  means  it  more  readily  insinuates 
itself  into  yielding  portions  of  the  soil.  The  root-tips  will  also  turn 
toward  moisture,  and  so  secure  the  most  fa^vorable  positions  in  the  soil. 

465.  Stem-movements.  The  root  end  of  the  caulicle  or  first  joint  of 
stem  (that  beh)W  I  he  cotyledons)  acts -like  the  root,  in  turning  downward 
in  germination  (making  a  complete  bend  to  do  so  if  it  happens  to  })oint 
upward  as  tlie  seed  lies  in  the  ground),  while  the  other  end  turns  or 
points  skyward.  Tliese  opposite  positions  are  taken  in  complete  dark- 
ness as  readily  as  in  the  ligiit,  in  dryness  as  much  as  in  moisture-,  there 
fore,  so  far  as  these  movements  are  physical,  the  two  portions  of  the  same 
internode  appear  to  be  oppositely  afi'ected  by  gravitation  or  other  in- 
lluences. 

466.  Rising  into  the  air,  the  stem  and  green  shoots  generally,  while 
young  and  pliable,  bend  or  direct  themselves  toward  the  light,  or  toward 
the  stronger  light  when  unequally  illuminated;  while  roots  turn  toward  the 
darkness. 

467.  Many  growing  stems  have  also  a  movement  of  Nutation,  that  is, 
of  nodding  successively  in  different  directions.  This  is  brought  about  by 
a  temporary  increase  of  turgidity  of  the  cells  along  one  side,  thus  bowing 
the  stem  over  to  the  opposite  side;  and  this  line  of  turgesceuce  travels 
round  the  shoot  continually,  from  right  to  left  or  from  left  to  right  accord- 
ing to  the  species :  thus  the  shoot  bends  to  all  points  of  the  compass  in 
succession.  Commonly  this  nutation  is  slight  or  hardly  observable.  It  is 
most  marked  in 

46S.  Twining  Stems  (Fig.  90).  The  growing  upper  end  of  such 
stems,  as  is  familiar  in  the  Hoj),  Pole  Beans,  and  Moruiug-Glory,  turns 
over  in  an  inclined  or  horizontal  direction,  tiius  stretching  out  to  reach  a 
neighboring  support,  and  by  the  continual  change  in  the  direction  of  the 
nodding,  sweeps  the  whole  circle,  the  sweeps  being  the  longer  as  the  stem 
lengthens.  When  it  strikes  against  a  support,  such  as  a  stem  or  branch  of 
a  neighboring  plant,  the  motion  is  arrested  at  the  contact,  but  continues 
at  the  growing  apex  beyond,  and  this  apex  is  thus  made  to  wind  spirally 
around  the  supporting  body. 

469.  Leaf-movements  are  all  but  universal.  The  presentation  by 
most  leaves  of  their  upper  surface  to  the  light,  from  whatever  direction 
that  may  come,  is  an  instance ;  for  wlien  turned  upside  down  they  twist  or 
bend  round  on  the  stalk  to  recover  this  normal  position.  Leaves,  and  the 
leaflets  of  compound  leaves,  change  this  position  at  nightfall,  or  when  the 
light  is  withdrawn ;  they  then  take  what  is  called  their  sleeping  posture, 
resuming  the  diurnal  position  when  daylight  returns.     This  is  very  striking 


152 


VEGETABLE   LIFE  AND  WORK.  [SECTION    16. 


in  Locust -trees,  in  tlie  Sensitive  Plant  (Fig.  100),  and  in  Woodsorrel 
Young  seedlings  droop  or  close  tlicir  leaves  at  night  in  plants  wliicli  are 
not  thus  affected  in  tiie  adult  i'uliagc.  All  this  is  thought  to  be  a  protec- 
tion against  the  cold  by  nocturnal  radiation. 

470.  Various  plants  climb  by  a  coiling  movement  of  their  leaves  or  iheir 
leaf-stalks.  Familiar  examples  are  seen  in  Clematis,  Maurandia,  Troi)8eo- 
lum,  and  in  a  Solanum  which  is  much  cultivated  in  greenhouses  (Fig.  172). 
In  the  latter,  and  in  other  woody  plants  which  clind)  in  this  way,  tiie 
petioles  thicken  and  harden  alter  they  have  grasped  iheir  support,  thus 
securing  a  very  firm  hold. 

471  •  Tendril  movements.  Tendrils  are  either  leaves  or  stems  (98, 
16S),  specially  developed  for  climbing  purposes.  Cobaea  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  partial  transformation;  some  of  the  leaflets  are  normal,  some  of  the 
same  leaf  are  little  tendrils,  and  some  intermediate  in  character.  The 
Passion-flowers  give  good  examples  of  simple  stem-tendrils  (Fig.  92)  ; 
Grape-Vines,  of  branched  ones.  Most  tendrils  make  revolving  sweeps,  like 
those  of  twining  stems.  Those  of  some  Passion-flowers,  in  sultry  weather, 
are  apt  to  move  fast  enough  for  the  movement  actually  to  be  seen  for  a  part 
of  the  circuit,  as  plainly  as  that  of  the  second-hand  of  a  watch.  Two 
herbaceous  species,  Passiflora  grac.lis  and  P.  sicyoides  (the  first  an  annual, 
the  second  a  strong-rooted  perennial  of  the  easiest 
cultivation),  are  admirable  for  illustration  both  of 
revolving  movements  and  of  sensitive  coiling. 

472.    Movements  under  Irritation.     The  mo.^t 
familiar  case  is  that  of  the  Sensitive  Plant  (Fig.  490). 
The  leaves  suddenly  take  their  nocturnal  position 
when  roughly  touched  or  when  shocked  by  a  jar. 
The  leaflets  close  in  pairs,  the  four  outspread  par- 
tial petioles  come  closer  together,  and  the  common 
petiole      is     depressed. 
The  seat  of  the  move- 
ments is  at  the  base  of 
the  leaf-stalk  and  .^talk- 
lets.     Schrankia,  a  near 
relative  of  the  Sensitive 
Plant,  acts  in  the  same 
way,    but     is      slower. 
These   are   not    anoma- 
lous  actions,    but   only  *^ 
extreme  manifestations  of  a  faculty  more  or  less  common  in  foliage.     In 
Locust  and   Honey-Locusts   for  example,  repeated  jars  will  slowly  pro- 
duce similar  effects. 


Fig.  490.  Piece  of  stem  of  Sen.sitive  Plant  (Jlimosa  pudica),  with  two  leaves, 
the  lower  open,  the  upper  in  the  closed  state. 


SECTION    16.] 


MOVEMENTS. 


153 


473.  Leaf-stalks  and  tendrils  are  adapted  to  their  uses  in  climbing  by  a 
similar  sensitiveness.  The  coiling  of  the  leaf-stalk  is  in  response  to  a 
kind  of  irritation  produced  by  contact  with  the  supporting  body.  This 
may  be  shown  by  gentle  rubbing  or  prolonged  pressure  u[)ou  the  upper 
face  of  the  leaf-stalk,  whieb  is  soon  followed  by  a  curvature.  Ten- 
drils are  still  more  sensitive  to  contact  or  light  friction.  This  causes  the 
free  end  of  the  tendril  to  coil  round  the  support,  and  the  sensitiveness, 
propagated  downward  along  the  tendril,  causes  that  side  of  it  to  become 
less  turgescent  or  the  opposite  side  more  so,  thus  throwing  the  tendril  into 
coils.  This  shortening  draws  the  plant  up  to  the  support.  Tendrils  which 
have  not  laid  liold  will  at  length  commonly  coil  spontaneously,  in  a  simple 
coil,  from  the  free  apex  downward. 

In  Sieyos,  Echinocystis,  and  the 
above  mentioned  Passion-fiowci'S 
(471),  the  tendril  is  so  sensitive, 
under  a  high  summer  temperature, 
that  it  will  curve  and  coil  prompt- 
ly after  one  or  two  light  strokes 
by  the  hand. 

474.  Among  spontaneous  move- 
ments the  most  singular  are  those 
of  Desmodiuin  gyrans  of  India, 
sometimes  called  Telegraph-plant, 
which  is  cultivated  on  account  of 
this  action.  Of  its  three  leaflets, 
the  larger  (terminal)  one  moves 
only  by  drooping  at  nightfall  and 
rising  with  the  dawn.  But  its  two 
small  lateral  leaflets,  when  in  a 
congenial  high  temperature,  by  day 
and  by  night  move  upward  and 
downward  in  a  succession  of  jerks, 
stopping  oceasioually,  as  if  to  re- 
cover from  exhaustion.  In  most 
plant-movements  some  obviously 
useful  purpose  is  subserved  -.  this  i^i 
of  Desmodium  gyrans  is  a  riddle. 

475.  Movements  in  Flowers  are  very  various.  The  most  remarkable 
are  in  some  way  connected  with  fertilization  (Sect.  XIII.).  Some  occur 
under  irritation  :  the  stamens  of  Barberry  start  forward  when  touched  at 
the  base  inside :  those  of  many  polyandrous  flowers  (of  Sparmannia  very 
strikingly)  spread  outwardly  when  lightly  brushed :  the  two  lips  or  lobes 


Fig.  491.    Portion  of  stem  aud  leaves  of  Telegraph-plant  (Desmodium  gyrans), 
almost  of  natural  size. 


154 


VEGETABLE   LIFE  AND   WORK.         [.SECTION    IG. 


of  the  stigma  in  Mimulus  close  after  a  touch.  Some  arc  automatic  and 
arc  connected  with  dichogamy  (339) :  the  style  of  Sabbatia  and  of  large- 
flowered  species  of  Epilobium  bends  over  strongly  to  one  side  or  tarns  down- 
ward when  tlie  blossom  opens,  but  slowly  erects  itself  a  day  or  two  later. 

476.  Extraordinary  Movements  connected  -with  Capture  of  In- 
sects. Tlie  most  striking  cases  arc  those  of  Drosera  and  Dionsea;  for  an 
account  of  wliich  see  "  How  Plants  Behave,"  and  Goodale's  "  Physiological 
Botany." 

477.  The  upper  face  of  the  leaves  of  the  common  species  of  Drosera, 
or  Sundew,  is  beset  with  stout  bristles,  having  a  glandular  tip.  This  tip 
secretes  a  drop  of  a  clear  but  very  viscid  liquid,  which  glistens  like  a  dew- 
drop  in  the  sun;  whence  tlie  popular  name.  When  a  fly  or  other  small 
insect,  attracted  by  the  liquid,  alights  upon  the  leaf,  the  viscid  drops  are  so 
tenacious  that  they  hold  it  fast.  In  struggling  it  only  becomes  more  com- 
pletely entangled.  Now  the  neighboring  bris- 
tles, which  have  not  been  touched,  slowly  bend 
inward  from  all  sides  toward  the  captured  in- 
sect, and  bring  their  sticky  apex  against  its 
body,  thus  increasing  the  number  of  bonds. 
Moreover,  the  blade  of  the  leaf  commonly  aids 
in  the  capture  by  becoming  concave,  its  sides 
or  edges  turning  inward,  which  brings  still 
more  of  the  gland-tipped  bristles  into  contact 
with  the  captive's  body.  The  insect  per- 
ishes; the  clear  liquid  disappears,  apparently 

by  absorption  into  the  tissue  of 
the  leaf.  It  is  thought  that  the 
absorbed  secretion  takes  with  it 
some  of  the  juices  of  the  insect 
or  the  products  of  its  decompo- 
sition. 

478.  Dionaea  muscipula,  the 
most  remarkable  vegetable  fly-trap 
(Fig.  176,  492),  is  related  to  the 
Sundews,  and  has  a  more  special 
and  active  apparatus  for  fly- 
^'^^  catching,  formed  of  the  summit 

of  the  leaf.  The  two  halves  of  this  rounded  body  move  as  if  they  were 
hinged  upon  the  midrib;  their  edges  are  fringed  with  spiny  but  not 
glandular  bristles,  whicli  interlock  when  the  organ  closes.  Upon  the  face 
are  two  or  tliree  short  and  delicate  bristles,  whicli  are  sensitive.  They  do 
not  themselves  move  when  touclied.  but  they  propagate  the  sensitiveness  to 
the  organ  itself,  causing  it  to  close  with  a  quick  movement.     In  a  fresh 


Fig.  402.    Plant  of  Dioncea  imiscipula,  or  Venus's  Fly-trap,  reduced  iu  size. 


SECTION   16.]      TRANSFORMING    MATERIAL   AND   ENERGY.  155 

and  vigorous  leaf,  under  a  high  suiiinicr  tomporature,  and  when  the  trap 
lies  widely  open,  a  touch  of  any  one  of  the  minute  bristles  on  the  face,  by 
the  finger  or  any  extraneous  l)ody,  springs  the  trap  (so  to  say),  and  it 
closes  suddenly;  but  after  an  hour  or  so  it  opens  again.  When  a  fly  or 
other  small  insect  alights  on  the  trap,  it  closes  in  the  same  manner,  and  so 
quickly  that  the  intercrossing  marginal  bristles  obstruct  the  egress  of  the 
insect,  unless  it  be  a  small  one  and  not  worth  taking.  Afterwards  and 
more  slowly  it  completely  closes,  and  presses  down  upon  the  prey ;  then 
some  liidden  glands  pour  out  a  glairy  liquid,  which  dissolves  out  the  juices 
of  the  insect's  body ;  next  all  is  re-absorbed  into  the  plant,  and  the  trap 
opens  to  repeat  the  operation.  But  the  same  leaf  perhaps  never  captures 
more  than  two  or  three  insects.  It  ages  instead,  becomes  more  rigid  and 
motionless,  or  decays  away. 

479.  That  some  few  plants  should  thus  take  animal  food  will  appear 
less  surprising  when  it  is  considered  that  hosts  of  plants  of  the  lower  grade, 
known  as  Fungi,  moulds,  rusts,  ferments.  Bacteria,  etc.,  live  upon  animal 
or  other  organized  matter,  either  decaying  or  living.  That  plants  should 
execute  movements  in  order  to  accomplish  the  ends  of  tlieir  existence  is 
less  surprising  now  when  it  is  known  that  the  living  substance  of  plants 
and  animals  is  essentially  the  same ;  that  the  beings  of  both  kingdoms  par- 
take of  a  conunon  life,  to  which,  as  they  rise  in  the  scale,  other  and  liiglier 
endowments  are  successively  superadded. 

480.  Work  uses  up  material  and  energy  in  plants  as  well  as  in  ani- 
mals. The  latter  live  and  work  by  the  consumption  and  decomposition 
of  that  which  plants  have  assimilated  into  organizable  matter  through  an 
energy  derived  from  the  sun,  and  which  is,  so  to  say,  stored  up  in  the  as- 
similated products.  In  every  internal  action,  as  well  as  in  every  movement 
and  exertion,  some  portion  of  this  assiuiilated  matter  is  transformed  and 
of  its  stored  energy  expended.  The  steam-engine  is  an  organism  for  con- 
verting the  sun's  radiant  energy,  stored  up  by  plants  in  the  fuel,  into  me- 
chanical work.  An  animal  is  an  engine  fed  by  vegetable  fuel  in  the  same 
or  other  forms,  from  the  same  source,  by  the  decomposition  of  which  it 
also  does  mechanical  work.  The  plant  is  the  producer  of  food  and  accumu- 
lator of  solar  energy  or  force.  But  the  plant,  like  the  animal,  is  a  con- 
sumer whenever  and  by  so  much  as  it  does  any  work  except  its  great  work 
of  assimilation.  Every  internal  change  and  movement,  every  tr-'^nsforma- 
tion,  such  as  that  of  starch  into  sugar  and  of  sugar  into  cell-walls,  as  well 
as  every  movement  of  parts  which  becomes  externally  visible,  is  done  at 
the  expense  of  a  certain  amount  of  its  assimilated  matter  and  of  its  stored 
energy  ;  that  is,  by  the  decomposition  or  combustion  of  sugar  or  some  such 
product  into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  which  is  given  back  to  the  air,  just 
as  in  the  animal  it  is  given  back  to  the  air  in  respiration.  So  the  respira- 
tion of  plants  is  as  real  and  as  essential  as  that  of  animals.  But  what  plants 
consume  or  decompose  in  their  life  and  action  is  of  insignificant  amount  in 
comparison  with  what  they  compose. 


156        CRYPTOGAMOUS   OR   FLOWERLESS   PLANTS.      [SECTION    17. 


Section  XVTT.      CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR  FLOWERLESS 
PLANTS. 

481.  Even  the  beginner  in  botany  should  have  some  general  idea  of 
what  cryptogamous  plants  are,  and  what  are  the  obvious  distinctions  of  the 
,irincipal  families.  Although  the  lower  grades  are  diffieult,  and  need  special 
books  and  good  microscopes  for  their  study,  the  higher  orders,  sucli  as 
Ferns,  may  be  determined  almost  as  I'cadily  as  phanerogamous  plants. 

482.  Linnaeus  gave  to  this  lower  grade  of  plants  the  name  of  Cryjito- 
gamia,  thereby  indicating  that  their  organs  answering  to  stamens  and 
pistils,  if  they  had  any,  were  recondite  and  unknown.  There  is  no  valid 
reason  why  this  long-familiar  name  should  not  be  kept  up,  along  with  the 
countei'part  one  of  Phuiierofjamia  (G),  although  organs  analogous  to  stamens 
and  pistil,  or  rather  to  pollen  and  ovule,  have  been  discovered  in  all  the 
higher  and  most  of  the  lower  grades  of  this  series  of  plants.  So  also 
the  English  synonymous  name  of  Flowerless  Plants  is  both  good  and  con- 
venient :  for  they  have  not  flowers  in  the  proper  sense.  The  essentials  of 
flowers  are  stamens  and  pistils,  giving  rise  to  seeds,  and  the  essential  of  a 
seed  is  an  embryo  (8).  Cryptogamous  or  Flowerless  plants  are  propagated 
by  Spo;ies  ;  and  a  spore  is  not  an  embryo-plantlet,  but  mostly  a  single 
plant-cell  (399). 

483.  Vascular  Cryptogams,  which  compose  the  higher  orders  of  this 
series  of  plants,  have  stems  and  (usually)  leaves,  constructed  upon  the 
general  plan  of  ordinary  plants;  that  is,  they  have  wood  (wood-cells  and 
vessels,  408)  in  the  stem  and  leaves,  in  the  latter  as  a  frame  work  of  veins. 
But  the  lower  grades,  having  only  the  more  elementary  cellular  structure, 
are  called  Cellular  Crypforjums.  Far  the  larger  number  of  the  former  are 
Ferns :  wherefore  that  class  has  been  called 

484.  Pteridophyta,  Pteridophytes  in  English  form,  meaning  Fern- 
plants,  —  that  is,  Ferns  and  their  relatives.  They  are  mainly  Horsetails, 
Ferns,  Club-Mosses,  and  various  aquatics  which  have  been  called  Hydiop- 
terides,  i.  e.  Water-Ferns. 

485.  Horsetails,  Equisetacece,  is  the  name  of  a  family  which  consists 
only  (among  now-living  plants)  of  Equisetum,  the  botanical  name  of  Horse- 
tail and  Scouring  Rush.  They  have  hollow  stems,  with  partitions  at  the 
nodes ;  the  leaves  consist  only  of  a  whorl  of  scales  at  each  node,  these 
coalescent  into  a  sheath  :  from  the  axils  of  these  leaf-scales,  in  many  species, 
branches  grow  out,  which  are  similar  to  the  stem  but  on  a  much  smaller 
scale,  close-jointed,  and  witli  the  tips  of  the  leaves  more  apparent.  At  the 
apex  of  the  stem  appears  the  fructification,  as  it  is  called  for  lack  of  a  better 
term,  in  tlie  form  of  a  short  spike  or  head.  This  consists  of  a  good  num- 
ber of  stalked  shields,  bearing  on  tlieir  inner  or  under  face  several  wedge- 
shaped  spore-cases.    The  spore-cases  when  they  ripen  open  down  the  inner 


SECTION    17.] 


rTERIDOPHYTES. 


157 


side  and  discharge  a  threat  mimbor  of  rrreen  spores  of  a  size  large  enough 
to  be  well  seen  by  a  hand-glass.     The  spores  are  aided  in  their  discharge 
494 


497  498  493  499 

and  dissemination  by  four  club-shaped  threads  attached  to  one  part  of  them. 
These  are  hygrometric  :  when  moist  tliey  are  rolled 
up  over  the  spore  ;  when  dry  they  straighten 
aod  exhibit  lively  movements,  closing  over  liie 
spore  when  breatlied  upon,  and  unrolhng  promptly 
a  moment  after  as  they  dry.  (See  Fig.  493-49 S) 
486.  Ferns,  or  Filices,  a  most  attractive  family 
of  plants,  are  very  numerous  and  varied.  In  warm 
and  equable  cUmates  some  rise  into  forest-trees, 
with  habit  of  Palms ;  but  most  of  them  are  peren- 
nial herbs.  The  wood  of  a  Fern-trunk  is  very  dif- 
ferent, however,  from  that  of  a  palm,  or  of  any  exogenous  stem  either.  A 
section  is  represented  in  Fig.  500.     The  curved  plates  of  wood  each  ter- 

FiG.  493.  Upper  part  of  a  stem  of  a  Horsetail,  Equisetum  sylvaticum.  494.  Part 
of  the  head  or  spike  of  spore-cases,  witli  some  of  tlie  latter  taken  off.  495.  View 
(more  enlarged)  of  under  side  of  tlie  shield-shaped  body,  bearing  a  circle  of  spore- 
cases.  496.  One  of  the  latter  detached  and  more  magnified.  497.  A  spore  with 
the  attached  arms  moistened.     498.  Same  when  dry,  the  arms  extended. 

Fig.  499.  A  Tree-Feni,  Dicksoiiia  arborescens,  with  a  young  one  near  its  base. 
In  front  a  common  lieibaceous  Fern  (Polypodiiim  vxilgare)  with  its  creeping  stem 
or  rootstock. 

Fig.  500.  A  section  of  the  trunk  of  a  Tree-Fern. 


500 


158        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OK   FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION    17. 

miiiate  upward  in  a  leaf-stalk.  The  subterranean  truuk  or  stem  of  any 
strong-growing  herbaceous  Fern  shows  a  similar  structure.  !Most  Ferns 
are  circinate  in  the  bud ;  that  is,  are  rolled  up  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig. 
197.     Uncoiling  as  they  grow,  they  have  some  likeness  to  a  crosier. 

487.    The  fructification  of  Ferns  is  borne  on  the  back  or  under  side  of 
the  leaves.     The  early  botanists  thought  this  such  a  peculiarity  that  they 

506  507  502 


always  called  a  Fern-leaf  a  Frond,  and  its  petiole  a  Stipe.  Usage  con- 
tinues these  terms,  although  they  are  superfluous.  The  fruit  of  Ferns 
consists  of  Spoke-cases,  technically  Sporangia,  which  grow  out  of  the 
veins  of  the  leaf.     Sometimes  these  are  distributed  over  the  whole  lower 


Fig.  501.  The  Walking-Feni,  Camptosorus,  reduced  in  size,  showing  its  fruit- 
dots  on  the  veins  approximated  in  pairs.  502.  A  small  piece  (innnule)  of  a 
Shield-Fern :  a  row  of  fruit-dots  on  each  side  of  the  midrib,  each  covered  by  its 
kidney-shaped  indusium.  503.  A  spore-case  from  the  latter,  just  bursting  by  the 
partial  straightening  of  the  incomplete  ring;  well  magnified.  504.  Three  of  the 
spores  of  509,  more  magnified.  505.  Schizsea  pusilla,  a  very  small  and  simple- 
leaved  Fern,  drawn  nearly  of  natural  size.  506.  One  of  the  lobes  of  its  fruit- 
bearing  portion,  magnified,  bearing  two  rows  of  spore-cases.  507.  Spore-case  of 
the  latter,  detached,  opening  lengthwise.  508.  Adder-tongue,  Ophioglossiini: 
spore-cases  in  a  kind  of  spike:  n,  a  portion  of  the  fruiting  part,  about  natural 
size;  showing  two  rows  of  the  firm  spore-cases,  which  open  transversely  into  two 
valves. 


SECTION    17.] 


PTERIDOPHYTES. 


159 


surface  of  the  leaf  or  frond,  or  over  the  whole  surface  when  there  are  no 
proper  leul-blades  to  the  froud,  but  all  is  reduced  to  stalks.  Coniinonly  the 
spore-cases  occupy  only  detached  spots  or  Ihics,  each  of  which  is  called  a 
SoKUS,  or  in  English  merely  a  Eruit-dot.  In  many  Ferns  these  fruit-dots 
are  naked  ;  in  others  they  are  produced  under  a  scale-like  bit  of  membrane, 
called  an  Indusium.  In  Maidenhair-Ferns  a  little  lobe  of  the  leaf  is  folded 
back  over  each  fruit-dot,  to  serve  as  its  shield  or  indusium.  In  the  true 
Brake  or  Bracken  (Pteris)  the  whole  edge  of  the  fruit-bearing  part  of  the 
leaf  is  folded  back  over  it  like  a  hem. 

488.  The  form  and  structure  of  the  spore-cases  can  be  made  out  with 
a  common  hand  magnifying  glass.  The  commonest  kind  (sliown  in  Fig. 
503)  has  a  stalk  formed  of  a  row  of  jointed  cells,  and  is  itself  composed 
of  a  layer  of  thin-walled  cells,  but  is  incompletely  surrounded  by  a  border  of 
thicker-walled  cells,  forming  the  Ring.  This  extends  from  the  stalk  up 
one  side  of  the  spore-case,  round  its  summit,  descends  on  the  other  side, 
but  there  gradually  vanishes.  In  ripening  and  drying  the  shrinking  of  the 
cells  of  the  ring  on  the  outer  side  causes  it  to  straighten ;  in  doing  so  it 
tears  the  spore-case  open  on  the  weaker  side  and 
discharges  the  minute  spores  that  fill  it,  com- 
monly with  a  jex"k  which  scatters  them  to  the 
wind.      Another  kind  of  spore-case   (Fig.  507) 

is   stalkless,  and   has  its 

ring-cells  forming  a  kind 

of  cap  at  the  top :  at  ma- 
turity it  splits  from   top 

to  bottom    by  a  regular 

dehiscence.    A  third  kind 

is    of    firm    texture   and 

opens     across    into    two 

valves,  like    a   clam-shell 

(Fig.    508")  :    this    kiiid 

makes  an  approach  to  the 

next  family. 

489.  The  spores  germi- 
nate on  moistened  ground. 

In  a    conservatory   they 

may  be  found  germinating 
on  a  damp  wall  or  on  the  edges  of  a  well- watered  flower-pot.     Instead  of 
directly  forming  a  fern-plantlet,  the  spore  grows  first  into  a  body  which 


Fig.  509.  A  young  prothallus  of  a  Maiden-hair,  moderately  enlarged,  and  an 
older  one  with  the  first  fern-leaf  developed  from  near  the  notch.  510.  Middle  por- 
tion of  the  young  one,  nmcli  magnified,  sliowinic  below,  partly  among  tlie  rootlets, 
the  nntheridia  or  fertilizing  organs,  and  above,  near  the  notch,  tliiee  pistillidia 
to  be  fertilized. 


160        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION   17. 

closely  resembles  a  small  Liverwort.  This  is  named  a  Prothallus  (Fig. 
509) :  from  some  point  of  this  a  bud  appears  to  originate,  which  produces 
the  first  fern-leaf,  soon  followed  by  a  second  and  third,  and  so  the  stem 
and  leaves  of  the  plant  are  set  up. 

490.   Investigation  of  tliis  prothallus  under  the  microscope  resulted  in 
the  discovery  of  a  wholly  unsuspected  kind  of  fertilization,  takin?  place  at 


this  germinating  stage  of  the  plant.  On  the  under  side  of  the  prothallus 
two  kinds  of  organs  appear  (Fig.  510).  One  may  be  likened  to  an  open 
and  depressed  ovule,  with  a  single  cell  at  bottom  answering  to  nucleus ; 
the  other,  to  an  anther;  but  instead  of  pollen,  it  discharges  corkscrew- 
shaped  microscopic  filaments,  whicli  bear  some  cilia  of  extreme  tenuity,  by 
the  rapid  vibration  of  which  the  filaments  move  freely  over  a  wet  surface. 
Tiiese  filaments  travel  over  the  surface  of  the  prothallus,  and  even  to  other 
prothalli  (for  there  are  natural  hybrid  Ferns),  reach  and  enter  the  ovule- 


FiG.  511.  Lycopodium  Carolinianum,  of  nearly  natural  size.  512.  Inside  view 
of  one  of  the  bracts  and  spore-case,  magnified. 

Fig.  513.  Open  4-valved  spore-case  of  a  Selaginella,  and  its  four  large  spores 
(niacrospores^^  magnified.  514.  Macrospores  of  another  Selaginella.  51.i.  Same 
separated. 

Fig,  516.  Plant  of  Isoetes.  517.  Base  of  a  leaf  and  contained  s]iorocarp  filled 
with  microspores  cut  across,  magnified.  518.  Same  divided  lengthwise,  equally 
magnified;  some  microspores  seen  at  the  left.  519.  Section  of  a  spore-case  contain- 
ing macrospores,  equally  maguilied;  at  the  right  three  macrospores  more  magnified. 


SECTION   17.] 


PTERIDOPHYTES. 


161 


like  cavities,  and  fertilize  the  cell.    This  thereupon  sets  up  a  growth,  forms 
a  vegetable  bud,  and  so  develops  the  new  plant. 

491.  An  essentially  similar  process  of  fertilization  has  been  discovered 
in  the  preceding  and  the  following  families  of  Pteridophytes  ;  but  it  is 
mostly  subterranean  and  very  difficult  to  observe. 

492.  Club-Mosses  or  Lycopodiums,  Some  of  the  common  kinds, 
called  Ground  Pine,  are  familiar,  being  largely  used  for  Christmas  wreaths 
and  other  decoration.  They  are  low  evergreens,  some  creeping,  all  with 
considerable  wood  in  their  stems:  this  thickly  beset  with  small  leaves.  In 
the  axils  of  some  of  these  leaves,  or  more  commonly,  in  the  axils  of  pecu- 
liar leaves  changed  into  bracts  (as  in  Fig.  511,  512)  spore-cases  appear,  as 
roundish  or  kidney-sliaped  bodies,  of  firm  texture,  opening  round  the  top 
into  two  valves,  and  discharging  a  great  quantity  of  a  very  fine  yellow 
powder,  the  spores. 

493.  The  SelagineUas  have  been  separated  from  Lycopodium,  which 
they  much  resemble,  because  they  produce  two  kinds  of  spores,  in  sepa- 
rate spore-cases.  One  kind  (Miceospokes)  is  just  that  of  Lycopodium; 
the  other  consists  of  only 
four  large  spores  (Macro- 
spores),  in  a  spore-case 
which  usually  breaks  in 
pieces  at  maturity  (Fig. 
513-515), 

494.  The  Quillworts, 
Isoetes  (Fig.  516-519), 
are  very  unlike  Club  Mos- 
ses in  aspect,  but  have  been 
associated  with  them.  They 
look  more  like  Rushes,  and 
live  in  water,  or  partly  out 
of  it.  A  very  short  stem, 
like  a  corm,  bears  a  cluster 
of  roots  underneath  ;  above 
it  is  covered  by  the  broad 
bases  of  a  cluster  of  awl- 
shaped  or  thread-shaped 
leaves.  The  spore-cases 
are  immersed  in  the  bases 
of  the  leaves.     The  outer 

leaf-bases  contain  numerous  macrospores  ;  the  inner  are  filled  with  innu- 
merable microspores. 

495.  The  Pillworts  (Marstlia  and  Pil/daria)  are  low  aquatics,  which 


520 


Fig.  f)20.    Plant  of  Marsilia qiiaih-ifoliata,  reduced  in  size;  at  the  right  a  pair  of 
sporo-carps  of  about  natural  size. 


162        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR   FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION    17. 

bear  globular  or  pill-sliapcd  fruit  (Sporoca.kps)  on  the  lower  part  of  their 
leaf-stalks  or  on  their  slender  creeping  steins.  The  leaves  of  the  commoner 
species  of  Marsilia  might  be  taken  for  four-leaved  Clover.  (See  Fig.  520.) 
The  sporocarps  arc  usually  raised  on  a  short  stalk.  Within  they  aru 
divided  lengthwise  by  a  partition,  and  then  crosswise  by  several  partitions. 
These  partitions  bear  numerous  delicate  sacs  or  spore-cases  of  two  kinds, 
intermixed.  The  larger  ones  contain  each  a  large  spore,  or  maerospore ; 
the  smaller  contain  numerous  microspores,  immersed  in  mucilage.  At 
maturity  the  fruit  bursts  or  splits  open  at  top,  and  the  two  kinds  of  spores 
are  discharged.  The  large  ones  in  germination  produce  a  small  prothallus  ; 
upon  which  the  contents  of  the  microspores  act  in  the  same  way  as  in 
Ferns,  and  wi(h  a  similar  result. 

496.  AzoUa  is  a  little  floating  plant,  looking  like  a  small  Liverwort  or 
Moss.  Its  branches  are  covered  with  minute  and  scale-shaped  leaves. 
On  the  under  side  of  the  branches  are  found  egg-shaped  thin-walled  sporo- 
carps of  two  kinds.  The  small  ones  open  across  and  discharge  micro- 
spores ;  the  larger  burst  irregularly,  and  bring  to  view  globose  spore-cases, 
attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  sporocarp  by  a  slender  stalk.  These  delicate 
spore-cases  burst  and  set  free  about  four  macrospores,  which  are  ferti- 
lized at  germination,  in  the  manner  of  the  Pillworts  and  Quillworts. 
(See  Fig.  521-526  ) 


522  524 

497.  Cellular  Cryptogams  (1-S3)  are  so  called  because  composed, 
even  in  their  higher  forms,  of  cellular  tissue  only,  without  proper  wood- 
cells  or  vessels.  Many  of  the  lower  kinds  are  mere  plates,  or  ribbons, 
or  simple  rows  of  cells,  or  even  single  cells.  But  their  highest  orders 
follow  the  plan  of  Ferns  and  phanerogamous  plants  in  having  stem  and 
leaves  for  their  upward  growth,  and  commonly  roots,  or  at  least  rootlets, 

FlQ.  521.  Small  plant  of  Azolla  Caroliniana.  522.  Portion  magnified,  showing 
the  two  kinds  of  sporocarp;  the  small  ones  contain  microspores  ;  52-3  represents 
one  more  magnified.  524.  The  larger  sporocarp  more  magnified.  525.  Same 
more  magnified  and  burst  open,  .showing  stalked  spore-cases.  526.  Two  of  the 
latter  highly  magnified  ;  one  of  them  bursting  shows  four  contained  macrospores? 
between  the  two,  three  of  these  spores  highly  magnified. 


SECTION 


17.] 


BRYOPHYTES. 


163 


to  attach  them  to  the  soil,  or  to  trunks,  or  to  other  bodies  on  which  tliey 
grow.  Plants  of  this  grade  are  chieflj  Mosses.  So  as  a  whole  they  take 
the  name  of 

498.  Bryophyta,  Bryophytes  iu  English  form,  Bryum  being  the 
Greek  name  of  a  Moss.  These  plants  are  of  two  principal  kinds .  true 
Musses  Qlusci,  which  is  their  Latin  name  iu  tlie  pluralj ;  and  Hepatic 
Mosses,  or  Liverworts  {flepaiicfe). 

499.  Mosses  or  Musci.  The  pale  Peat-mosses  (species  of  Sphagnum, 
tlie  princijial  component  of  sphagnous  bogs)  and  the  strong  grownig  Hair- 
cap  Moss  (Polytrichum)  are  among  the  lar- 
ger and  commoner  representatives  of  this 
numerous  family ;  while  Fountain  Moss  (Fon- 
tiualis)  in  running  water  sometimes  attains  the 
length  of  a  yard  or  more.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  are  barely  individually  distinguishable 
to  the  naked  eye.  Fig.  527  represents  a  com- 
mon little  Moss,  enlarged  to  about  twelve 
times  its  natural  size ;  and  by  its  side  is  part 
of  a  leaf,  much  magnified,  showing  that  it  is 
composed  of  cellular  tissue  (parenchyma-cells) 
only.  The  leaves  of  Mosses  are  always  sim- 
ple, distinct,  and  sessile  on  the  stem.  The 
fructification  is  an  urn-shaped  spore-case,  in 
this  as  in  most  cases  raised  on  a  slender  stalk. 
The  spore-case  loosely  bears  on  its  summit 
fl  thin  and  pointed  cap,  like  a  candle-extin- 
guisher, called  a  Calj/ptm.  Detaching  this,  it 
is  found  that  the  spore-case  is  hke  a  pyxis 
(37fi),  that  is,  the  top  at  maturity  comes  off 
as  a  lid  {Operc7dum) ;  and  that  the  interior  is 
filled  with  a  green  powder,  the  spores,  which 
are  discharged  through  the  open  mouth.  In 
most  Mosses  there  is  a  fringe  of  odjC  or  two 
rows  of  teeth  or  membrane  around  this  mouth 
or  orifice,  the  Peristome.  When  moist  the  peristome  closes  hygrometri- 
c.'illy  over  the  orifice  more  or  less ;  when  drier  the  teeth  or  processes 
commonly  bend  outward  or  recurve ;  and  then  the  spores  more  readily  es- 
cape. In  Hair-cap  ]\Ioss  a  membrane  is  stretched  quite  across  the  mouth, 
like  a  drum-head,  retaining  the  spores  until  this  wears  away.  See  Figures 
527-541  for  details. 

500.  Fertilization  in  Mosses  is  by  the  analogues  of  stamens  and  pistils, 
which  are  hidden  in  the  axils  of  leaves,  or  in  the  cluster  of  leaves  at  the 


Fig.  527.  Single  plant  of  Physcomitrium  pyriforme,  magnified.    528.  Top  of  a 
leaf,  cut  across;  it  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells. 


164        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR   FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION   17. 

end  of  the  stem.     The  analogue  of  the  aiitlier  {Antheridium )  is  a  cellular 
sac,  w'liich  in  bursting  discharges  innuiiicrabic  delicate  cells  floating  in  a 
mucilugiuous  liquid;    each  of  these  bursts  and  sets  free  a  vibratde  self- 
531  531  541  540 


529  536  535  537 

moving  thread.  These  threads,  one  or  more,  reach  the  orifice  of  the  pistil- 
shaped  body,  the  Pistillidium,  and  act  upon  a  particular  cell  at  its  base 
within.  This  cell  in  its  growth  develops  into  the  spore-case  and  its  stalk 
(when  there  is  anv),  carrying  on  its  summit  the  wall  of  the  pistillidium, 
wliich  becomes  the  calyptra. 

501.  Liverworts  or  Hepatic  Mosses  {Hcpatica)  in  some  kinds  re- 
semble true  Mosses,  having  distinct  stem  and  leaves,  although  their  leaves 
occasionally  run  together ;  while  in  others  there  is  no  distinction  of  stem 
and  leaf,  but  the  whole  plant  is  a  leaf-like  body,  which  produces  rootlets  on 
the  lower  face  and  its  fructification  on  the  upper.  Those  of  the  moss-like 
kind  (sometimes  called  Scale-Mosses)  have  their  tender  spore-cases  splitting 
into  l\>ur  valves;  and  with  tlicir  spores  are  intermixed  some  slender  spiral 


Fig.  529.  Mnium  cuspidatum,  smaller  than  nature.  530.  Its  calyptra,  detached, 
enlarged.  531.  Its  spore-case,  with  top  of  stalk,  magnified,  the  lid  (532)  being 
detached,  the  outer  peristome  appears.  533.  Part  of  a  cellular  ring  (nnnulus) 
which  was  under  the  lid,  outside  of  the  peristome,  more  niagnilied.  534.  Some 
of  the  outer  and  of  the  inner  peristome  (consisting  of  jointed  teeth)  much  magni- 
fied. 535.  Antheridia  and  a  pistillidium  (tlie  so-called  flower)  at  end  of  a  stem 
of  same  plant,  the  leaves  torn  away  ((f,  antheridia,  $,  j)isiiUidium),  magmfied. 
536.  A  bursting  antheridium,  and  some  of  the  accompanying  jointed  threads, 
highly  magnified.  5?>7.  Summit  of  an  open  spore-case  of  a  Moss,  which  has 
a  peristome  of  16  pairs  of  teeth.  538.  The  double  peristome  of  a  Hypnum. 
539-541.  Spire-case,  detached  calyptra,  and  top  of  more  enlarged  spore-cast 
and  detached  lid,  of  Physcomitrium  pjTiforme  (Fig.  527) :  orifice  shows  that  there 
is  no  peristome. 


SECTION    17.  J 


BRYOrHYTES. 


105 


and  very  liygromrtrio  threads  (called  Elafers)  which  are  thought  to  aid  in 
the  dispersion  of  the  spores.     (Fig.  542-544.) 

502.  Marchautia,  tlie  commonest  and  largest  of  the  true  Liverworts, 
forms  large  greeu  plates  or  fronds  on  damp  and  shady  ground,  and  sends  up 
from  some  part  of  the  upper  face  a  stout  stalk,  ending  in  a  several-lobed 
umbrella-shaped  body,  under  the  lobes  of  which  hang  several  thin-walled 
spore-cases,  which  burst  open  and  discharge  spores  and  elaters.  Riccia 
natans  (Fig.  545)  consists  of  wedge-shaped  or  heart-shaped  fronds,  which 
float  free  in  pools  of  still  water.  The  under  face  bears  copious  rootlets  ;  iu 
the  substance  of  the  upper  face  are  the  spore-cases,  their  pointed  tips 


merely  projecting :  there  they  burst  open,  and  discharge  their  spores. 
These  are  compai-atively  few  and  large,  and  are  in  fours ;  so  they  arc  very 
like  the  macrospores  of  Pillworts  or  Quillworts. 

503.  Thallophyta,  or  Thallophytes  in  English  form.  This  is  the  name 
for  the  lower  class  of  Cellular  Cryptogams,  — plants  iu  which  there  is  no 
marked  distinction  into  root,  stem,  and  leaves.  Roots  in  any  proper  sense 
they  never  have,  as  organs  for  absorbing,  although  some  of  the  larger 
Seaweeds  (such  as  the  Sea  Colander,  Fig.  553)  have  them  as  holdfasts. 
Instead  of  axis  and  foliage,  there  is  a  stratum  of  frond,  in  such  plants 
commonly  called  a  Thallus  (by  a  strained  use  of  a  Greek  and  Latin  word 
which  means  a  green  shoot  or  bough),  whicli  may  have  any  kind  of  form, 
leaf-like,  stem-like,  branchy,  extended  to  a  flat  plate,  or  gathered  into  a 
sphere,  or  drawn  out  into  threads,  or  reduced  to  a  single  row  of  cells,  or 
even  reduced  to  single  cells.  Indeed,  Thallophytes  are  so  multifarious,  so 
numerous  in  kinds,  so  protean  in  their  stages  and  transformations,  so  re- 
condite in  their  fructification,  and  many  so  microscopic  in  size,  either  of 


Fig.  542.  Fructification  of  a  Jungermannia,  magnified;  its  cellular  spore-stalk, 
surrounded  at  base  by  some  of  the  leaves,  at  summit  the  -i-valved  spore-case  open- 
ing, discharging  spores  and  elaters.  543.  Two  elaters  and  some  spores  from  the 
same,  higlily  magnified. 

Fig.  544.  On'3  of  the  frondose  Liverworts,  Steetzia,  otherwise  like  a  Junger- 
mannia ;  the  spore-case  not  yet  protruded  troin  its  sheath. 


166        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR  FLOWEKLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION   17. 

tlie  plant  itself  or  its  essential  organs,  that  they  have  to  be  elaborately 
described  in  separate  books  and  made  suljjects  of  special  study. 

50i.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  well  to  try  to  give  some  general  idea  of 
what  Algae  and  Lichens  and  Fungi  are.  Linnseus  had  them  all  under  the 
orders  of  Algae  and  Fungi.     Afterwards  the  Lichens  were  separated ;  but 

545  646  547 


of  late  it  has  been  made  most  probable  that  a  Lichen  consists  of  an  Alga 
and  a  Fungus  conjoined.  At  least  it  must  be  so  in  some  of  the  ambiguous 
forms.  Botanists  are  in  the  way  of  bringing  out  new  classifications  of  the 
Thallophytes,  as  they  come  to  understand  their  structure  and  relations 
better.     Here,  it  need  only  be  said  that 

505.  Lichens  live  in  the  air,  that  is,  on  the  ground,  or  on  rocks,  trunks, 
walls,  and  the  like,  and  grow  when  moistened  by  rains.  They  assimilate  air, 
water,  and  some  earthy  matter,  just  as  do  ordinary  plants.     Algae,  or  Sea- 


550 


551 


weeds,  live  in  water,  and  live  the  same  kind  of  life  as  do  ordinary  plants. 
Fungi,  whatever  medium  they  inhabit,  live  as  animals  do,  upon  organic  mat- 
ter, —  upon  what  other  plants  have  assimilated,  or  upon  the  products  of 


Fig.  545,  546.  Two  plants  of  Riccia  natans,  about  natural  size.  547.  Magnified 
section  of  a  part  of  the  frond,  .showing  two  immersed  spore-cases,  and  one  emptied 
space.  548.  Magnifietl  section  of  a  spore-case  with  some  spores.  549.  Magni- 
fied spore-case  torn  out,  and  spores;  one  figure  of  the  spores  united;  the  other  of 
the  four  separated. 

Fig.  550.  Branch  of  a  Chara,  about  natural  size.  551.  A  fruiting  portion, 
magnified,  showing  the  structure;  a  sporocarp,  and  an  antheridium.  552.  Outlines 
of  a  portion  of  the  stem  in  section,  showing  the  central  cell  and  the  outer  or 
cortical  cells. 


SECTION    17.] 


TIIALLOPHYTES. 


IG'i 


their  decay.  True  as  these  general  distinctions  are,  it  is  no  less  true  that 
these  orders  run  together  in  llicir  lowest  forms  ;  and  tiiat  Algse  and  Fungi 
may  be  traced  down  into  forms  so  low  and  simple  that  no  clear  line  can  be 
drawn  between  them  ;  and  even  into  forms  of  which  it  is  uncertain  whether 
they  should  be  called  plants  or  animals.  It  is  as  well  to  say  that  they  are 
not  high  enough  in  rank  to  be  distinctively  either  the  one  or  the  other.  On 
the  other  hand  there  is  a  peculiar  group  of  plants,  which  in  simplicity  of 
composition  resendjle  the  simpler  Algae,  while  in  fructification  and  in  tlie 
arrangements  of  their  simple  cells  into  stem  and  branches  they  seem  to  be 
of  a  higher  order,  viz.  :  — 

506.  Characeae.  These  are  aqnatie  herbs,  of  considerable  size,  abound- 
ing in  ponds.  The  simpler  kinds  (Nitella)  have  the  stem  formed  of  a 
single  row  of  tubular  cells,  and  at  the  nodes,  or  junction  of  the  cells,  a 
■whorl  of  similar  branches.  Cliara  (Fig.  550-552)  is  the  same,  except  tliat 
the  cells  which  make  up  tlie  stem  and  the  principal  branches  are  strength- 
ened by  a  coating  of   many  smaller  tubular  cells,  applied  to  the  surface 

of  the  main  or  central  cell.     The  fructifi- 

'O    iUSc^-^  cation    consists    of    a    globular    sporocarp 

of    considerable    size,    which     is    spirally 


554 


enwrapped  by   tubular  cells   twisted   around  it:  by  the  side  of  this  is  a 
smaller  and  globular  antheridium.     The  latter  breaks  up  into  eight  shield- 


FiG.  553.  Agarum  Turneri,  Sea  Colander  (so  called  from  the  perforations  with 
which  the  frond,  as  it  grows,  becomes  riddled);  very  much  reduced  in  size. 

Fio.  554.  U;iper  end  of  a  Rockweed,  Fucus  vesiculosus,  reduced  half  or  more, 
b,  the  fructitic.ition. 


1G8         CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR   FLOWERLESS  PLAxNTS.      [SECTION    17. 

shaped  pieces,  with  au  iulerual  stalk,  and  bearing  long  aud  ribbuu-shaped 
fdameiits,  which  cunsist  of  a  row  of  delicate  cells,  each  of  vvhicli  dis- 
charges a  free-moving  microscopic  thread  (the  analogue  of  the  pollen  or 
p.ollen-tube),  nearly  in  the  manner  of  Ferns  and  Mosses.  One  of  these 
threads  reaches  aud  fertilizes  a  cell  at  the  apex  of  the  nucleus  or  sohd 
body  of  the  sporocarj).  This  subsequently  germinates  aud  forms  a  new 
individual. 

507.    Algae  or  Seaweeds.     The  proper  Seaweeds  may  be  studied  by 
the   aid  of  Professor  Farlow's  "  Marine  Algae  of    New  England ;  "  the 


fresh-water  species,  by  Prof.  H.  C.  Woods's  "  Fresh-water  Algae  of  North 
America,"  a  larger  aud  less  accessible  volume.  A  few  common  forms  are 
here  very  briefly  mentioned  and  illustrated,  to  give  an  idea  of  the  family. 
But  tliey  are  of  almost  endless  diversity. 

508.  The  common  Rockwecd  (Fucus  vesiculosus,  Fig.  554,  abounding 
between  liigli  and  low  water  mark  on  the  coast),  the  rarer  Sea  Colander 
(Agarum  Turneri,  Fig.  5b'-\),  and  Laminaria,  of  which  the  larger  forms 
are  called  Devil's  Aprons,  are  good  rejn-esentatives  of  the  olive  green  or 
brownish  Seaweeds.  They  are  attached  either  by  a  disk-like  base  or  by 
root-like  holdfasts  to  the  rocks  or  stones  on  which  they  grow. 

509.  The  lioUow  and  inflated  places  in  the  Fucus  vesiculosus  or  Rock- 
weed  (Fig.  551)  are  air-bladders  for  buoyancy.  The  fructification  forms 
in  the  substance  of  tlie  tips  of  the  frond :  the  rough  dots  mark  the  places 
where  the  coneeptacles  open.  The  spores  and  the  fertilizing  cells  are  in 
different  plants.  Sections  of  the  two  kinds  of  coneeptacles  are  given  in  Fig. 
555  and  556.     The  contents  of  the  coneeptacles  are  discharged  through 


Fig.  555.  Magnified  section  through  a  fertile  conceptacle  of  Rockweed,  showing 
the  large  spores  in  the  midst  of  tlireads  of  cells.  556.  Similar  section  of  a  sterile 
conceptacle,  containing  slender  antheridia.  From  Farlow's  "  Marine  Algae  of  New 
England." 


SECTION    17.] 


THALLOPHYTES. 


169 


a  small  orifice  which  in  each  figure  is  at  the  margin  of  the  page.  The  large 
spores  are  formed  eight  together  in  a  mother-cell.  The  minute  motile 
iilaments  of  the  antheridia  fertilize  the  large  spores  after  injection  into  the 
water:  and  then  the  latter  promptly  acquire  a  cell- wall  and  germinate. 

510.  The  Floridese  or  Rose-red  series  of  marine  Algse  (which,  however, 
are  sometimes  green  or  brownish)  are  the  most  attractive  to  amateurs. 
The  delicate  Porphyra  or  Laver  is  in  some  countries  eaten  as  a  delicacy,  and 

the  cartilaginous  Chondrus  crispus  has 
been  largely  used  for  jelly.  Besides  their 
conceptacles,  which  contain  true  spores 
(Fig.  560),  they  mostly  have  a  fructifi- 
cation in  Tetraspores,  that  is,  of  spores 
originating  in  fours  (Fig.  559). 


511.   The  Grass-green  Algae  sometimes  form  broad  membranous  fronds, 
such  as  those  of  the  common  Ulva  of  the  sea-shore,  but  most  of  them  form 


^(T0qOo| 


mere  threads,  either  simple  or  branched.     To  this  division  belong  almost 


Fig.  557.  Small  plant  of  Chondrus  crispixs,  or  Carrageen  Moss,  reduced  in 
size,  in  fruit;  the  spots  represent  the  fructification,  consisting  of  numerous  tetra- 
spores  in  hunches  in  the  substance  of  the  jilant.  558.  Section  through  the  thickness 
of  one  of  the  lobes,  magnified,  passing  through  two  of  the  imbedded  fruit-clusters. 
559.   Two  of  its  tetraspores  (spores  in  fours),  highly  magnitiwl. 

■piG.  560.  Section  through  a  conceptacle  of  Delesseria  Leprieurei,  much  magni- 
fied, showing  the  spores,  which  are  single  specialized  cells,  two  or  three  in  a  row. 

Fig.  561.  A  piece  of  the  rose-red  Delesseria  Lepreinrei,  double  natural  size. 
r)62.  A  jiiece  cut  out  and  much  magnified,  sliowing  that  it  is  composed  of  a  la}-er 
Bf  cells.  563.  A  few  of  the  cells  more  highly  magnified:  the  cells  are  gelatinous 
»nd  thick-walled. 


170        CRYPTOGAMOUS   OR   FLOWERLESS   PLAN're.      [SECTION    17, 

aJl  the  Fresh-wafer  Algae,  such  as  those  which  constitule  the  silky  threads 
or  greeu  slime  of  ruuuiiig  streams  or  standing  pools,  and  which  were  all 
called  Confervas  before  their  immense  diversity  was  known.  Some  are 
formed  of  a  single  row  of  cells,  developed  each  from  the  end  of  another. 
Others  branch,  the  top  of  one  cell  producing  more  tlian  one  new  one 
'"  (I'ig-  564).     Others,  of  a  kind  which  is  very  common 

in  fresh  water,  simple  threads  made  of  a  line  of  cells, 
have  the  chlorophyll  and  protoplasm  of  each  cell  ar- 
ranged in  spiral  lines  or  hands. 
They  form  spores  in  a  peculiar 
way,  which  gives  to  this  family  the 
designation  of  conjugating  Alga;. 

512.  At  a  certain  time  two  par- 
allel threads  approach  each  other 
more  closely;  contiguous  parts  of 


a  cell  of  each  thread  bulge  or  grow  out,  and  unite  when  they  meet;  the 
cell-wall  partitions  between  them  are  absorbed  so  as  to  open  a  free  commu- 
nication; the  spiral  band  of  green  matter  in  both  cells  breaks  up;  the  whole 
of  that  of  one  cell  passes  over  into  the  other ;  and  of  the  united  contents 
a  large  green  spore  is  formed.     Soon  the  oW  cells  decay,  and  the   spore 

Fig.  564.  The  growing  end  of  a  branching  Conferva  (Cladophora  glonierata), 
much  magnified;  sliowing  how,  by  a  kind  of  budding  growth,  a  ne\s'  cell  is  formed 
by  a  cross  partition  separating  the  newer  tip  from  the  okler  part  below;  also,  how 
the  branches  arise. 

Fig.  565.  Two  magnified  individuals  of  a  Spiiogyin,  forming  spores  by  con- 
jugation; a  completed  spore  at  base  :  above,  successive  stages  of  the  conjugation 
are  represented. 

Fig.  566.  Closterium  acutnni,  a  conmion  Desmid,  moderately  magnified.  It  is 
a  single  firm-walled  cell,  filled  with  green  protoplasmic  matter. 

Fig.  567.  More  magnified  view  of  three  stages  of  the  conjugation  of  a  pair  cl 
the  same. 


SECTION 


THALLOrriYTES. 


171 


set  free  is  ready  to  f^erminate.  Fig.  5G5  represents  several  stages  of  the 
conjugating  process,  wliicli,  however,  would  never  be  found  all  togettier  like 
this  in  one  pair  of  threads. 

513.  Desmids  and  Diatomes,  which  are  niicrosco])ic  one-celled  plants  of 
the  same  class,  conjugate  in  the  same  way,  as  is  shown  in  a  Closteriuni  by 
Fig.  566,  567-  Here  the  whole  living  contents  of  two  individuals  are  in- 
corporated into  one  spore,  for  a  fresh  start.  A  reproduction  which  costs 
the  life  of  two  individuals  to  make  a  single  new  one  would  be  fatal  to  the 
species  if  there  were  not  a  provision  for  multiplication  by  the  prompt  divi- 
sion of  the  new-formed  individual  into  two,  and  these  again  into  two,  and 
so  on  in  geometrical  ratio.  And  the  costly  process  would  be  meaningless 
if  there  were  not  some  real  advantage  in  such  a  fresh  start,  that  is,  in 
sexes. 


514.  There  are  other  Algae  of  the  grass-green  series  which  consist  of 
single  cells,  but  which  by  continued  growth  form  plants  of  considerable 
size.     Three  kinds  of  these  are  represented  in  Fig.  568-571!. 

515.  Lichens,  Latin  Lichenes,  are  to  be  studied  in  the  works  of  the 
late  Professor  Tuckerman,  but  a  popular  exposition  is  greatly  needed. 
The  subjoined  illustrations  (Fig-  575-580)  may  simply  indicate  what  some 
of  the  commoner  forms  are  like.  The  cup,  or  shield-shaped  spot,  or  knob, 
which  bears  the  fructification  is  named  the  Apothecium.     This  is   mainly 


Fig.  568.  Early  stage  of  a  species  of  Botrydium,  a  globose  cell.  569,  570.  Stages 
of  growth.  571.  Full-grown  plant,  extended  aud  ramified  below  in  a  root-like 
way.  572,  A  Vaucheria;  single  cell  grown  on  into  a  much-branched  tliread;  the 
end  of  some  branches  enlarging,  and  the  green  contents  in  one  (a)  there  condensed 
into  a  spore.  573.  More  magnified  view  of  a,  and  the  mature  s})ore  escaping. 
574.  Bryopsis  phunosa;  apex  of  a  stem  with  its  branchlets;  all  the  extension  of 
one  cell.     Variously  magnified. 


172        CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR   FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.      [SECTION    17. 

composed  of  slender  sacs  (Asri),  liaving  lliread-slmpod  cells  intermiypd  ; 
and  each  ascus  contains  lew  or  several  spores,  wliicli  are  commonly  double 
or  treble.  Most  Lichens  are  flat  expansions  of  grayish  hue  ;  some  of  them 
foliaceous  in  texture,  but  never  of  bright  green  color;  more  are  crusta- 
ceous;  some  are  wholly  pulverulent  and  nenrly  formless.  But  in  several 
the  vegetation  leuglheus  into  an  axis  (as  in  Fig.  5 SO),  or  imitates  stem 


575 

and  branches  or  threads,  as  in  the  Reindeer-Moss  on  the  ground  in  our 
northern  woods,  and  the  Usnea  hanging  from  the  boughs  of  old  trees 
overhead. 

516.  Fungi.  For  this  immense  and  greatly  diversified  class,  it  must 
here  suffice  to  indicate  the  parts  of  a  Mushroom,  a  Sphseria,  and  of  one  or 
two  common  Moulds.  The  true  vegetation  of  common  Fungi  consists  of 
slender  cells  which  form  what  is  called  a  Mycelium.     These  filamentous 


Fig.  575.  A  stone  on  ■which  various  Lichens  are  growing,  such  as  (passing  from 
left  to  right)  a  Parmelia,  a  Sticta,  and  on  the  right,  Lecidia  geographica.  so  called 
from  its  patches  resembling  the  outline  of  islands  or  continents  as  depicted  upon 
maps.  576.  Piece  of  thallus  of  Parmelia  conspersa,  with  section  through  an 
apothecium.  577.  Section  of  a  smaller  apotheciiim,  enlarged.  578.  IVo  asci 
of  same,  and  contained  spores,  and  accompanying  filaments;  more  magnified. 
579.  Piece  of  thallns  of  a  Sticta,  with  section,  showing  the  immer.sed  apotheci.i; 
the  small  openings  of  these  dot  the  surface.  580.  Cladonia  coccinea;  the  fructi- 
fication is  in  the  scarlet  knobs,  which  surround  the  cups. 


SECTION   17.] 


THALLOPHYTES. 


173 


cells  lengthen  and  branch,  growing  by  the  absorption  through  their  whole 
surface  ot"  the  decaying,  or  orgunizable,  or  living  matter  wiiieh  they  feed 
upon.  In  a  Mushroom  (Agaricus),  a  kuol)by  mass  is  at  length  formed, 
which  develops  into  a  stout  stalk  (Sl/'pr),  bearing  tlie  cap  {PUeus)  :  tlie 
under  side  of  tlic  cap  is  covered  by  the  Ih/nienium,  in  this  genus  consisting 
of  radiating  plates,  tlie  gills  or  LamelLe ;  and  these  bear  the  powdery  spores 
in  immense  numbers.  Under  the  microscope,  the  gills  are  found  to  be 
studded  with  projecting  cells,  each  of  which,  at  the  top,  produces  four 
stalked  spores.  These  form  the  powder  wliicii  collects  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
upon  which  a  mature  Mushroom  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a  day  or  two.  (I'ig. 
581-586.) 

517.  The  esculent  Morel,  also  Splia;ria  (Fig.  585,  586),  and  many  other 
Fungi  bear  their  spores  in  sacs  (usci)  exactly  in  the  manner  of  Lichens 
(515). 


518.     Of  the  Moulds,  one  of  the  commoner  is  the  Bread-Mould  (Fig. 
587).     In  fruiting  it  sends  up  a  slender  stalk,  which  bears  a  globular  sac  ; 


Fig  581  Agaricus  campestris,  the  common  edible  Mushroom.  582.  Section 
of  cap  and  stalk.  583.  Minute  portion  of  a  section  of  a  gill,  shbwmg  some  spore- 
hearing  cells,  much  magnified.     584.   One  of  these,  with  its  four  spores,  more 

magnified.  .      ,    ,     ,  i 

Fig.  585.   Sphjeria  rosella.    586.  Two  of  the  asci  and  contamed  double  spores, 
quite  like  those  of  a  Lichen ;  raucli  magnified. 


174        CRYPTOGAMOUS   OR   FLOWERLESS   PLANTS.      [SECTION    17. 


this  bursts  at  maturity  and  discharges  innumerable  spores.  The  blue 
Cheese-Mould  (Fig.  588)  bears  a  cluster  of  branches  at  top,  each  of 
which  is  a  row  of  naked  spores,  like  a  string  of  beads,  all  breaking  apart 

at  maturity.    Botrytis 


(Fig.  .589),  the  fruit- 
ing stalk  of  which 
branches,  and  each 
branch  is  tipped  with 
a  spore,  is  one  of  the 
many  moulds  which 
live  and  feed  upon  the 
juices  of  other  plants 
or  of  animals,  and  are 
often  very  destructive. 
The  extremely  nume- 
rous kinds  of  smut,  rust,  mildew,  the  ferments,  bacteria,  and  the  like, 
many  of  them  very  destructive  to  other  vegetable  and  to  animal  life,  are 
also  low  forms  of  the  class  of  Fungi.^ 


Fig.  587.  Ascophora,  the  Bread-Mould.  588.  Aspergillus  glaucus,  the  mould 
of  cheese,  but  common  on  mouldy  vegetables.  589.  A  species  of  Botrytis.  All 
magnified. 

1  The  "Introduction  to  Cryptogamous  Botany,"  or  third  volume  of  "The  Botan- 
ical Text  Book,"  now  in  preparation  by  the  author's  colleagixe,  Professor  Farlow, 
will  be  the  proper  guide  in  the  study  of  the  Flowerless  Plants,  especially  oi  tlie 
Algae  and  Fungi. 


SECTION    18.]  CLASSIFICATION.  175 


Section  XVIIL    CLASSIFICATION  AND  NOMENCLATURE. 

519.  Classification,  in  botany,  is  the  cousideratiou  of  plants  in  respect 
to  their  kinds  and  relationships.  Some  system  of  Nomenclature,  or  nam- 
ing, is  necessary  for  fixing  and  expressing  botanical  knowledge  so  as  to 
make  it  available.  The  vast  multiplicity  of  plants  and  the  various  degrees 
of  their  relationship  imperatively  require  order  and  system,  not  only  as  to 
tiames  for  designating  the  kinds  of  plants,  but  also  as  to  terms  for  defining 
their  differences.  Nomenclature  is  concerned  with  the  names  of  plants. 
Terminology  supplies  names  of  organs  or  parts,  and  terms  to  designate 
their  differences. 

§  1.    KINDS  AND  RELATIONSHIP. 

520.  Plants  and  animals  have  two  great  peculiarities  :  1st,  they  form 
themselves  ;  and  2d,  they  multiply  themselves.  They  reproduce  their  kind 
in  a  continued  succession  of 

521.  Individuals.  Mineral  things  occur  as  masses,  which  are  divisible 
into  smaller  and  still  smaller  ones  without  alteration  of  properties.  But 
organic  things  (vegetables  and  animals)  exist  as  individual  beings.  Each 
owes  its  existence  to  a  parent,  and  pi'oduces  similar  individuals  in  its  turn. 
So  each  individual  is  a  link  of  a  chain ;  and  to  this  chain  the  natural- 
historian  applies  the  name  of 

522.  Species.  All  the  descendants  from  the  same  stock  therefore  com- 
pose one  species.  And  it  was  from  our  observing  that  the  several  sorts  of 
plants  or  animals  steadily  reproduce  themselves,  or,  in  other  words,  keep 
up  a  succession  of  similar  individuals,  that  the  idea  of  species  originated. 
There  are  few  species,  however,  in  which  man  has  actually  observed  the 
succession  for  many  generations.  It  could  seldom  be  proved  that  all  the 
White  Pine  trees  or  White  Oaks  of  any  forest  came  from  the  same  stock. 
But  observation  having  familiarized  us  with  the  general  fact  that  indi- 
viduals proceeding  from  the  same  stock  are  essentially  alike,  we  infer  from 
their  close  resemblance  that  these  similar  individuals  belong  to  the  same 
species.  That  is,  we  infer  it  when  the  individuals  are  as  much  like  each 
other  as  those  are  which  we  know,  or  confidently  suppose,  to  have  sprung 
from  the  same  stock. 

523.  Identity  in  species  is  inferred  from  close  similarity  in  all  essential 
respects,  or  whenever  the  differences,  however  considerable,  are  not  known 
or  reasonably  supposed  to  have  been  originated  in  the  course  of  time  under 
changed  conditions.  No  two  individuals  are  exactly  alike ;  a  tendency  to 
variation  pervades  all  living  things.  In  cultivation,  where  variations  are 
looked  after  and  cared  for,  very  striking  differences  come  to  light ;  and  if 
in  wild  nature  they  are  less  common  or  less  conspicuous,  it  is  partly  be- 
cause they  are  uncared  for.  When  such  variant  forms  are  pretty  well 
marked  they  are  called 


176  CLASSIFICATION.  [SECTION   18. 

524.  Varieties.  The  Wliitc  Oak,  for  example,  presents  two  or  three 
varieties  in  the  shape  of  the  leaves,  altliough  they  may  be  all  alike  upon 
each  particular  tree.  The  question  often  arises,  and  it  is  often  hard  to 
answer,  .vhether  the  difference  in  a  particular  case  is  that  of  a  variety,  or 
is  specific.  If  the  former,  it  may  commonly  be  proved  by  finding  such 
intermediate  degrees  of  difference  in  various  individuals  as  to  show  that 
no  clear  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  them  ;  or  else  by  observing  the 
variety  to  vary  back  again  in  some  of  its  ofi'spring.  The  sorts  of  Apples, 
Pears,  Potatoes,  and  the  like,  show  that  ditfereuces  which  are  permanent 
in  the  individual,  and  continue  unchanged  through  a  long  series  of  gen- 
erations when  propagated  by  division  (as  by  offsets,  cuttings,  grafts, 
bulbs,  tubers,  etc.),  are  not  likely  to  be  reproduced  by  seed.  Still  they 
sometimes  are  so,  and  perhaps  always  tend  in  that  direction.  For  the 
fundamental  law  in  organic  nature  is  that  offspring  shall  be  like  parent. 

Races  are  such  strongly  marked  varieties,  capable  of  coming  true  to 
seed.  The  different  sorts  of  Wheat,  Maize,  Peas,  Radishes,  etc.,  are 
familiar  examples.  By  selecting  those  individuals  of  a  species  which  have 
developed  or  inherited  any  desirable  peculiarity,  keeping  them  from  min- 
gling with  their  less  promising  bretliren,  and  selecting  again  the  most 
promising  plants  raised  from  their  seeds,  the  cultivator  may  in  a  few 
generations  render  almost  any  variety  transmissible  by  seed,  so  long  as  it  is 
cared  for  aud  kept  apart.  In  fact,  this  is  the  way  the  cultivated  domesti- 
cated races,  so  useful  to  man,  have  been  fixed  and  preserved.  Races,  in 
fact,  can  hardly,  if  at  all,  be  said  to  exist  independently  of  man.  But 
man  does  not  really  produce  them.  Such  peculiarities  —  often  surprising 
enough  —  now  and  then  originate,  we  know  not  how  (tlie  plant  sporfs,  as 
tli€  gardeners  say) ;  they  are  only  preserved,  propagated,  and  generally 
further  developed,  by  the  cultivator's  skilful  care.  If  left  alone,  they  are 
likely  to  dwindle  and  perish,  or  else  revert  to  the  original  form  of  the 
species.  Vegetable  races  arc  commonly  annuals,  which  can  be  kept  up 
only  by  seed,  or  herbs  of  which  a  succession  of  generations  can  be  had 
every  year  or  two,  and  so  the  education  by  selection  be  completed  without 
great  lapse  of  time.  But  all  fruit-trees  could  probably  be  fixed  into  races 
in  an  equal  number  of  generations. 

Bud-varieties  are  those  which  spring  from  buds  instead  of  seed. 
They  are  uncommon  to  any  marked  extent.  They  are  sometimes  called 
Sports,  but  this  name  is  equally  applied  to  variations  among  seedlings. 

Cross-breeds,  strictly  so-called,  are  the  variations  which  come  from 
cross-fertUizing  one  variety  of  a  species  with  another. 

Hybrids  are  the  varieties,  if  they  may  be  so  called,  which  come  from 
the  crossing  of  species  (331).  Only  nearly  related  species  can  be  hybridized; 
and  the  resulting  progeny  is  usually  self-sterile,  but  not  always.  Hybrid 
plants,  however,  may  often  be  fertilized  and  made  prolific  by  the  pollen 
of  one  or  the  other  parent.     This  produces  another  kind  of  cross-breeds. 

525.  Species   are   the  units   in   classification.      Varieties,  although  of 


SECTION    18.]  KINDS  AND   RELATIONSHIP.  177 

utmost  importance  in  cultivation  and  of  considerable  consequence  in  the 
flora  of  any  country,  are  of  less  botanical  significance.  For  tliey  are  apt 
to  be  indefinite  and  to  shade  off  one  form  into  another.  But  species,  the 
botanist  expecls  to  be  distinct.  Indeed,  the  practical  diff"erence  to  the 
botanist  between  species  and  varieties  is  the  definite  limitation  of  the  one 
and  the  iudefiuiteness  of  the  other.  Tiie  botanist's  determination  is  partly 
a  matter  of  observation,  partly  of  judgment. 

526.  In  an  enlarged  view,  varieties  may  be  incipient  species  ;  and  ucarly 
related  species  probably  came  from  a  common  stock  in  earlier  times.  For 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  existing  vegetation  came  from  the 
more  or  less  changed  vegetation  of  a  preceding  geological  era.  However 
that  may  be,  species  are  regarded  as  permanent  and  essentially  unchanged 
in  their  succession  of  individuals  through  the  actual  ages. 

527.  There  are,  at  nearly  tlie  lowest  computation,  as  many  as  one  hun- 
dred thousand  species  of  phanerogamous  plants,  and  the  cryptoganious 
species  are  thought  to  be  still  more  numerous.  They  are  all  connected  liy 
resemblances  or  relationships,  near  and  remote,  which  show  that  they  are 
all  parts  of  one  system,  realizations  in  nature,  as  we  may  affirm,  of  the  con- 
ception of  One  Mind.  As  we  survey  them,  they  do  not  form  a  single  and 
connected  chain,  stretching  from  the  low-est  to  the  highest  organized 
species,  although  there  obviously  are  lower  and  higher  grades.  But  the 
species  throughout  group  themselves,  as  it  were,  into  clusters  or  constel- 
lations, and  these  into  still  more  comprehensive  clusters,  and  so  on,  with 
gaps  between.  It  is  this  clustering  which  is  the  ground  of  the  recognition 
of  kinds  of  species,  that  is,  of  groups  of  sj)ecies  of  successive  grades  or 
degree  of  generality  ;  such  as  that  of  similar  species  into  Genera,  of  genera 
into  Families  or  Orders,  of  orders  into  Classes.  In  classification  the  se- 
quence, proceeding  from  higher  or  more  general  to  lower  or  special,  is  always 
Class,  Order,  Genus,  Species,  Variety  (if  need  be). 

528.  Genera  (in  the  singular,  Geftus)  are  assemblages  of  closely  related 
species,  in  which  the  essential  parts  are  all  constructed  on  the  same  partic- 
ular type  or  plan.  White  Oak,  Bed  Oak,  Scarlet  Oak,  Live  Oak,  etc., 
are  so  many  species  of  the  Oak  genus  (Latin,  Quercus').  The  Chestnuts 
compose  another  genus;  the  Beeches  another.  The  Apple,  Pear,  and 
Crab  are  species  of  one  genus,  the  Quince  represents  another,  the  various 
species  of  Hawthorn  a  third.  In  the  animal  kingdom  the  common  cat,  the 
wild-cat,  the  panther,  the  tiger,  the  leopard,  and  the  lion  are  species  of  the 
cat  kind  or  genus;  while  the  dog,  the  jackal,  the  different  species  of  wolf, 
and  the  fo.'ces,  compose  another  geims.  Some  genera  are  represented  by 
a  vast  number  of  species,  others  by  few,  very  many  by  only  one  known 
species.  For  the  genus  may  be  as  perfectly  represented  in  one  species  as 
in  several,  although,  if  this  were  the  case  throughout,  genera  and  species 
would  of  course  be  identical.  The  Beech  genus  and  the  Chestnut  genus 
would  be  just  as  distinct  from  the  Oak  genus  even  if  but  one  Beech  and 
one  Chestnut  were  known ;  as  indeed  was  once  the  case. 

12 


178  CLASSIFICATION.  [SECTION   18. 

529.  Orders  are  groups  of  genera  that  resemble  each  other ;  that  is, 
they  are  to  genera  what  genera  are  to  species.  As  familiar  illustrations, 
the  Oak,  Cliestnut,  and  Beech  genera,  along  with  the  Hazel  genus  and  the 
Hornbeams,  all  belong  to  one  order.  The  Birches  and  the  Alders  make 
another;  the  Poplars  and  Willows,  another;  the  Walnuts  (with  the  But- 
ternut) and  the  Hickories,  still  another.  The  Apple  genus,  the  Quince 
and  the  Hawthorns,  along  with  the  Plums  and  Cherries  and  the  Peach, 
the  Raspberry  with  the  Blackberry,  the  Strawberry,  the  Rose,  belong 
to  a  large  order,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  Rose.  Most  botanists 
use  the  names  "  Order "  and  "  Family  "  synonymously ;  the  latter  more 
popularly,  as  "  the  Rose  Family,"  the  former  more  technically,  as 
"Order  Rosacece.'" 

530.  But  when  the  two  are  distinguished,  as  is  common  in  zoology, 
Family  is  of  lower  grade  than  Order. 

531.  Classes  are  still  more  comprehensive  assemblages,  or  great  groups. 
Thus,  in  modern  botany,  the  Dicotyledonous  plants  compose  one  class, 
the  Monocotyledonous  plants  another  (36-40). 

532.  These  four  gi-ades.  Class,  Order,  Genus,  Species,  are  of  universal 
use.  Variety  comes  in  upon  occasion.  For,  although  a  species  may  have 
no  recognized  varieties,  a  genus  implies  at  least  one  species  belonging  to 
it ;  every  genus  is  of  some  order,  and  every  order  of  some  class. 

533.  But  these  grades  by  no  means  exhaust  the  resources  of  clas- 
sification, nor  suffice  for  the  elucidation  of  all  the  distinctions  which 
botanists  recognize.  In  the  first  place,  a  higher  grade  than  that  of  class 
is  needful  for  the  most  comprehensive  of  divisions,  that  of  all  plants  into 
the  two  Series  of  Phanerogamous  and  Cryptogamous  (6) ;  and  in  natu- 
ral history  there  are  the  two  Kingdoms  or  Realms,  the  Vegetable  and 
the  Animal. 

534.  Moreover,  the  stages  of  the  scafi'olding  have  been  variously  ex- 
tended, as  required,  by  the  recognition  of  assemblages  lower  than  class  but 
higher  than  order,  viz.  Subclass  and  Cohort;  or  lower  than  order,  a  Sub- 
order; or  between  this  and  genus,  a  Tribe;  or  between  this  and  tribe,  a 
Suhtribe ;  or  between  genus  and  species,  a  Subgenus;  and  by  some  a 
species  has  been  divided  into  Subspecies,  and  a  variety  into  Subvarieties. 
Last  of  all  are  Indiciduals.  Suffice  it  to  remember  that  the  following  are 
the  principal  grades  in  classification,  with  the  proper  sequence ;  also  that 
only  those  here  printed  in  small  capitals  are  fundamental  and  universal 
in  botany :  — 

Seeibs, 

Class,  Subclass,  Cohort, 

Order,  or  Family,  Suborder,  Tribe,  Subtribe, 
Genus,  Subgenus  or  Section, 
Species,  Variety. 


SECTION    18.]  NOMENCLATURE.  179 


§  2.     NAMES,   TERMS,   AND  CHARACTERS. 

535.  The  name  of  a  plant  is  the  name  of  its  genus  followed  by  that  ot 
the  species.  The  name  of  the  genus  answers  to  the  surname  (or  family 
name) ;  that  of  the  species  to  the  baptismal  name  of  a  person.  Thus  C^uer- 
ctts  is  the  name  of  the  Oak  genus;  Quercus  alba,  that  of  the  White  Oak, 
Q.  rubra,  that  of  Red  Oak,  Q.  nigra,  that  of  the  Black-Jack,  etc.  Botani- 
cal names  being  Latin  or  Latinized,  the  adjective  name  of  the  species 
comes  after  that  of  the  genus. 

536.  Names  of  Genera  are  of  one  word,  a  substantive.  The  older 
ones  are  mostly  classical  Latin,  or  Greek  adopted  into  Latin ;  such  as 
Quercus  for  the  Oak  genus,  Fagus  for  the  Beech,  Corijlus,  the  Hazel,  and 
the  like.  But  as  more  genera  became  known,  botanists  had  new  names  to 
make  or  borrow.  Many  are  named  from  some  appearance  or  property  of 
the  flowers,  leaves,  or  other  parts  of  the  plant.  To  take  a  few  examples 
from  the  early  pages  of  the  "  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United 
States,"  —  the  genus  Hcpatlca  comes  from  the  shape  of  the  leaf,  resembling 
that  of  tlie  liver.  Mj/osunis  means  mouse-tail.  Delphinium  is  from  dol- 
phin, a  dolphin,  and  alludes  to  the  shape  of  the  flower,  which  was  thought 
to  resemble  the  classical  figures  of  the  dolphin.  Xanthorrhiza  is  from  two 
Greek  words  meaning  yellow-root,  the  common  name  of  the  plant.  Cimi- 
cifuga  is  formed  of  two  Latin  words  meaning  to  drive  away  bugs,  i.  e. 
Bugbane,  the  Siberian  species  being  used  to  keep  away  such  vermin. 
Sanguinaria,  the  Bloodroot,  is  named  from  the  blood-like  color  of  its  juice. 
Other  genera  are  dedicated  to  distinguished  botanists  or  promoters  of 
science,  and  bear  their  names :  such  are  Magnolia,  which  commemorates 
the  early  French  botanist,  Maguol ;  and  Jeffersonia,  named  after  President 
Jefferson,  who  sent  the  first  exploring  expedition  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Others  bear  the  name  of  the  discoverer  of  the  plant ;  as,  Sarra- 
cenia,  dedicated  to  Dr.  Sarrazin,  of  Quebec,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to 
send  the  common  Pitciier-plant  to  the  botanists  of  Europe  ;  and  Clai/tonia, 
first  made  known  by  the  early  Virginian  botanist  Clayton. 

537.  Names  of  Species.  The  name  of  a  species  is  also  a  single  word, 
appended  to  that  of  the  genus.  It  is  commonly  an  adjective,  and  therefore 
agrees  with  the  generic  name  in  case,  gender,  etc.  Sometimes  it  relates  to 
the  country  the  species  inhabits  ;  as,  Claytonia  Virginica,  first  made  known 
from  Virginia;  Sanguinaria  Canadensis,  from  Canada,  etc.  More  com- 
monly it  denotes  some  obvious  or  characteristic  trait  of  the  species ;  as, 
for  example,  in  Sarraceuia,  our  northern  species  is  named  -purpurea,  from 
the  purple  blossoms,  while  a  more  southern  one  is  named  flaxa,  because 
its  petals  are  yellow ;  the  species  of  Jeffersonia  is  called  diphylla,  meaning 
two-leaved,  because  its  leaf  is  divided  into  two  leaflets.  Some  species  are 
named  after  the  discoverer,  or  in  compliment  to  a  botanist  wlio  has  made 
them  known ;  as,  Magnolia  Fraaeri,  named  after  the  botanist  Fraser,  one 


180  NOMENCLATURE.  [SECTION    18. 

of  the  first  to  fiud  tins  species  ;  aud  Sarraccnia  Drummondil,  for  a  Pitcher- 
plant  found  by  Mr.  Druumiuud  in  i*'lorida.  Such  personal  s])eoilic  names 
are  of  course  written  witli  a  capital  initial  letter.  Occasionally  some  old 
substantive  name  is  used  for  the  species  ;  as  Magnolia  Umbrella,  the  Um- 
brella tree,  and  Ranunculus  Flammula.  These  are  also  written  with  a 
capital  initial,  aud  need  not  accord  with  the  generic  name  in  gender.  Geo- 
graphical specific  names,  such  as  Canadensis,  Caroliniana ,  Americana,  in 
tlic  hitcr  usage  arc  by  some  written  witliout  a  capital  initial,  but  the  older 
usage  is  better,  or  at  least  more  accordant  with  English  orthography. 

538.  Varietal  Names,  when  any  are  required,  are  made  on  the  plan  of 
specific  names,  and  follow  these,  with  the  prefix  var.  Ranunculus  Flam- 
mula, var.  reptans,  the  creeping  variety :  R.  abortivus,  var.  micranthus, 
the  small-flowered  variety  of  the  species. 

539.  In  recording  the  name  of  a  plant  it  is  usual  to  append  the  name, 
or  an  abbreviation  of  the  name,  of  the  botanist  who  first  published  it ;  and 
in  a  flora  or  other  systematic  work,  this  reference  to  the  source  of  the 
name  is  completed  by  a  further  citation  of  the  name  of  the  book,  the 
volume  and  page  where  it  was  first  published.  So  "  Ranunculus  acris, 
L.,"  means  that  this  Buttercup  was  first  so  named  and  described  by  Lin- 
naeus ;  "  R.  multijidus,  Pursh,"  that  this  species  was  so  named  aud  pub- 
lished by  Pursh.  The  suffix  is  no  part  of  the  name,  but  is  an  abbreviated 
reference,  to  be  added  or  omitted  as  convenience  or  definiteness  may  re- 
quire. The  autliorify  for  a  generic  name  is  similarly  recorded.  Thus, 
*'  Ranunculus,  L.,"  means  that  the  genus  was  so  named  by  Linnaus; 
"  Myosurus,  Dill.,"  that  the  Mouse-tail  was  established  as  a  genus  under 
this  name  by  DiUenius ;  Caulophi/lluni,  Miclix.,  that  the  Blue  Cohosh  was 
pul)lished  under  this  name  by  Michaux.  The  full  reference  in  the  last- 
named  instance  would  be,  "  in  Flora  Boreali-Americaua,  first  volume,  205  th 
page,"  —  in  the  customary  abbreviation,  "Michx.  Fl.  i.  205." 

540.  Names  of  Orders  are  given  in  the  plural  number,  and  are  com- 
monly formed  by  prolonging  the  name  of  a  genus  of  the  group  taken  as  a 
representative  of  it.  For  example,  the  order  of  which  ihe  Buttercup  or 
Crowfoot  genus,  Ranunculus,  is  the  representative,  takes  from  it  the  name 
of  Ranunculacece ;  meaning  Planta  Ranunculacete  when  written  out  in 
full,  that  is,  Rauunculaceous  Plants.  Some  old  descriptive  names  of 
orders  are  kept  up,  such  as  Crucifera  for  the  order  to  which  Cress  and 
Mustard  belong,  from  the  cruciform  appearance  of  their  expanded  corolla, 
and  Umhelliferce,  from  the  flowers  being  in  umbels. 

541.  Names  of  Tribes,  also  of  suborders,  subtribes,  aud  the  like,  are 
plurals  of  the  name  of  the  typical  genus,  less  prolonged,  usually  in  ea, 
inem,  idea,  etc.  Thus  the  proper  Buttercup  tribe  is  Ranunculece,  of  the 
Clematis  tribe,  Clematidece.  While  the  Rose  family  is  Rosacea,  the  special 
Rose  tribe  is  Rosea;. 

543.  Names  of  Classes,  etc.  For  these  see  the  following  synopsis  o£ 
the  actual  classification  adopted,  p.  183. 


SECTION    18.]  TERMINOLOGY.  181 

543.  So  a  plant  is  named  in  two  words,  the  generic  and  the  specific 
names,  to  which  may  be  added  a  third,  tliat  of  tlie  variety,  upon  occasion. 
The  generic  name  is  peculiar:  obviously  it  must  not  be  used  twice  over  in 
botany.  The  specific  name  must  not  be  used  twice  over  in  I  he  same  genus, 
but  is  free  for  any  other  genus.  A  Quercus  alba,  or  While  Oak,  is  no 
hindrance  to  Betula  alba,  or  White  Birch  ;  and  so  of  other  names. 

544.  Characters  and  Descriptions.  Plants  are  characterized  l^y  a 
terse  statement,  in  botanical  terms,  of  their  peculiarities  or  distinguishing 
marks.  Tiie  ciiaracter  of  the  order  should  include  nothing  wliicli  is  com- 
mon to  the  whole  class  it  belongs  to;  that  of  the  genus,  nothing  \vnich  is 
common  to  the  order ;  that  of  the  species  nothing  which  is  shared  with 
all  other  species  of  the  genus;  and  so  of  other  divisions.  Descriptions 
may  enter  into  complete  details  of  the  whole  structure. 

545.  Terminology,  also  called  Glossology,  is  nomenclature  applied  to 
organs  or  parts,  and  their  forms  or  modifications.  Each  organ  or  special 
part  has  a  substantive  name  of  its  own:  shapes  and  other  modilications  of 
au  organ  or  part  are  designated  by  adjective  terms,  or,  when  the  forms 
are  peculiar,  substantive  names  are  given  to  them.  By  the  correct  use 
of  such  botanical  terms,  and  by  proper  subordination  of  the  characters 
under  the  order,  genus,  species,  etc.,  plants  may  be  described  and  deter- 
mined with  much  precision.  The  classical  language  of  botany  is  Latin. 
While  modern  languages  have  their' own  names  and  terms,  these  usually 
lack  the  precision  of  the  Latin  or  Latinized  botanical  terminology.  For- 
tunately, this  Latinized  terminology  has  been  largely  adopted  and  incor- 
porated into  the  English  teciinical  language  of  botany,  thus  securing  pre- 
cision.    And  these  terms  are  largely  the  basis  of  specific  names  of  plants. 

546.  A  glossary  or  vocabulary  of  the  principal  botanical  terms  used  in 
phanerogamous  and  vascular  cryptogamous  botany  is  appended  to  this 
volume,  to  which  the  student  may  refer,  as  occasion  arises. 

§  3.    SYSTEM. 

547.  Two  systems  of  classification  used  to  be  recognized  in  botany,  —  the 
artificial  and  the  natural ;  but  only  the  latter  is  now  thought  to  deserve 
the  name  of  a  system. 

548.  Artificial  classifications  have  for  object  merely  the  ascertaining 
of  the  name  and  place  of  a  plant.  They  do  not  attempt  to  express  relation- 
ships, but  serve  as  a  kind  of  dictionary.  They  distribute  the  genera  and 
species  according  to  some  one  peculiarity  or  set  of  peculiarities  (just  as  a 
dictionary  distributes  words  according  to  their  first  letters),  disregarding 
all  other  considerations.  At  present  an  artificial  classification  in  botany 
is  needed  only  as  a  key  to  the  natural  orders,  — as  an  aid  in  referring  an 
unknown  plant  to  its  proper  family ;  and  such  keys  are  still  very  needful, 
at  least  for  th.^  beginner.  Formerly,  when  the  orders  themselves  were 
not  clearly  made  out,  an  artificial  classification  was  required  to  lead  the 


182  SYSTEM,  [section    18. 

student  down  to  the  genus.  Two  sucli  classificatious  were  long  iu  vogue : 
I'irst,  that  of  Touniet'ort,  I'ouuded  mainly  on  the  leaves  of  the  flower,  the 
calyx  and  corolla  :  this  was  tiie  prevalent  system  throughout  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century;  but  it  has  long  since  gone  by.  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  well-known 

bid.  Artificial  System  of  Linnaeus,  which  was  founded  on  the  sta- 
mens and  ))istils.  It  consists  of  twenty-four  classes,  and  of  a  variable 
number  of  orders ;  tlie  classes  founded  mainly  on  the  number  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  stamens  ;  the  orders  partly  upon  the  number  of  styles  or  stig- 
mas, partly  upon  other  considerations.  Useful  and  popular  as  this  system 
was  down  to  a  time  within  the  memory  of  still  surviving  botanists,  it  is 
now  completely  obsolete.  But  the  tradition  of  it  survives  in  the  names  of 
its  classes,  Monandria,  Diandria,  Triandria,  etc.,  which  are  fannliar  in 
terminology  in  the  adjective  terms  monandrous,  diandrous,  triandrous,  etc. 
(284)  ;  also  of  the  orders,  Monogynia,  Uigynia,  Trigynia,  etc.,  preserved  iu 
the  form  of  monogynous,  digynous,  trigynous,  etc.  ('01) ;  and  iu  the  name 
Cryptogamia,  that  of  the  2ith  class,  which  is  coniiuued  for  the  lower  series 
in  the  natural  classification. 

550.  Natural  System.  A  genuine  system  of  botany  consists  of  the 
orders  or  families,  duly  arranged  under  their  classes,  and  having  the  tribes, 
the  genera,  and  the  species  arranged  in  them  according  to  their  relation- 
ships. This,  when  properly  carried  out,  is  the  Natural  Sydem  ;  because 
it  is  intended  to  express,  as  well  as  possible,  the  various  degrees  of  relation- 
ship among  plants,  as  presented  in  nature ;  that  is,  to  rank  those  species 
and  those  genera,  etc.,  next  to  each  other  in  the  classification  which  are 
really  most  ahke  in  all  respects,  or,  in  other  words,  which  are  constructed 
most  nearly  on  the  same  particular  plan. 

551.  There  can  be  only  one  natural  system  of  botany,  if  by  this  term 
is  meant  the  plan  according  to  which  the  vegetable  creation  was  called  into 
being,  with  all  its  grades  and  diversities  among  the  species,  as  well  of  past 
as  of  the  present  time.  But  there  may  be  many  natural  systems,  if  we 
mean  the  attempts  of  men  to  interpret  and  express  that  plan,  —  systems 
which  will  vary  with  advancing  knowledge,  and  with  the  judgment  and 
skill  of  different  botanists.  These  must  all  be  very  imperfect,  bear  the 
impress  of  individual  minds,  and  be  shaped  by  the  current  philosophy  of 
the  age.  But  the  endeavor  always  is  to  make  the  classification  answer  to 
Nature,  as  far  as  any  system  can  which  has  to  be  expressed  in  a  definite 
and  serial  arrangement. 

552.  So,  although  the  classes,  orders,  genera,  etc.,  are  natural,  or  as 
natural  as  the  systematist  can  make  tliem,  their  grouping  or  order  of 
arrangement  in  a  book,  must  necessarily  be  in  great  measure  artificial. 
Indeed,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  arrange  the  orders,  or  even  the  few  classes, 
in  a  single  series,  and  yet  have  each  group  stand  next  to  its  nearest  relatives 
on  both  sides. 

553.  Especially  it  should  be  understood  that,  although  phanerogamous 


SECTION    18.]  SYSTEM.  183 

plants  are  of  higher  grade  than  cryplogamous,  and  angios[)ermous  or  or- 
dinary phanerogamous  liiglier  than  llic  gymuospermous,  yet  there  is  no 
culmination  in  the  vegetable  luugdom,  nor  any  highest  or  lowest  order  of 
phanerogamous  planls. 

554.    Tiie  particular  system  most  largely  used  at  present  in  the  classi- 
fication of  the  orders  is  essentially  the  following  :  — 

Series  I.  PHANEROGAMIA:  Phanerogamous  or  Flowering  Plants. 

Class  I.     DICOTYLEDONES  ANGIOSPERME^,  called  for  shortness 

in  English,  Dicotyledons  or  Dicotyls.     Ovules  in  a   closed   ovary. 

Embryo  dicotyledonous.     Stem  wilh  exogenous  plan  of  growth.    Leaves 

reticulate-veined. 

Artificial  Division  I.     Polypetal^,  with  petals  mostly  present  and 

distinct.     Orders  about  80  in  number,  Ranunculacea  to  Comaceec. 
Artificial   Division   II.     Gamopetal.e,    with    gamopetalous    corolla. 

Orders  about  45,  Caprifoliacece  to  Plantuginacece. 
Artificial  Division  III.     Apetal.e  or  Incomplet^e,  with   perianth, 
when  present,  of  calyx  only.      Orders  about  35  in  number,  from 
Nyctaginaceae  to  Salicacece. 
Class  II.     DICOTYLEDONES  GYMNOSPERME^,  in  English  Gym- 
NOSPERMS.     No  ovary  or  pericarp,  but  ovules  and  seeds  naked,  and  no 
proper  calyx  nor  corolla.     Embryo  dicotyledonous  or  polycotyledonous. 
Stem  with  exogenous  plan  of  growth.     Leaves  mostly  parallel-veined. 
Consists  of  order  QnetacecB,  which  strictly  connects  with  Angiospermous 
Dicotyls,  of  Conifera,  and  of  Cycadacece. 
Class  III.     MONOCOTYLEDONES,  in  English  Monocotyledons  or 
MoNOCOTYLS.    Angiospermous.    Embryo  monocolyledonous.    Stem  with 
endogenous  plan  of  growth.     Leaves  mostly  parallel- veined. 

Division  I.     Petaloide^.     Perianth  complete,  having  the  equivalent 
of  both  calyx  and  corolla,  and  all  the  inner  series  corolline.     About 
18  orders. 
Division  II.     Calycin^.     Perianth  complete  (in  two  series)  but  not 
corolline,    mostly    thickish    or   glumaceous.      Chiefly    two   orders, 
Juncaceee,  the  true  Rushes,  and  Palma,  Palms. 
Division  III.    SpADiciFLORiE  or  Nudiflor^.    Perianth  none,  or  rudi- 
mentary and  incomplete:  inflorescence  spadiceous.     Of  five  orders, 
Typhaceo'  and  Aroideo'  the  principal. 
Division  IF.     Glumace^.     Perianth   none,    or   very   rudimentary: 
glumaceous  bracts  to  the  flowers.     Orders  mainly  Cyperacea  and 
Graminece. 
Series  II.     CRYPTOGAMIA:  Cryptogamous  or  Elowerless  Plants. 
Class     L     PTERIDOPHYTA,  Pteridopiiytes  (484). 
Class    II.     BRYOFHYTA,  Bbyophytes  (498). 
Class  III.    THALLOPHYTA,  Tuallopuytes  (503). 


184  BOTANICAL  WORK.  [SECTION    19, 


Section  XIX.     BOTANICAL   WORK. 

555.  Some  hiuts  and  brief  instructions  for  the  collection,  examination, 
and  preservation  of  specimens  are  added.  Tliey  are  especially  inl ended 
for  the  assistance  of  those  who  have  not  the  advantage  of  a  teacher.  They 
apply  to  phanerogamous  plants  and  Ferns  only,  and  to  systematic  botany.^ 

§  1.     COLLECTION,  OR  HERBORIZATION. 

556.  As  much  as  possible,  plants  should  be  examined  in  the  living  state, 
or  when  freshly  gathered.  But  dried  specimens  should  be  prepared  for 
more  leisurely  examination  and  for  comparison.  To  the  working  botanist 
good  dried  specimens  are  indispensable. 

557.  Botanical  Specimens,  to  be  complete,  should  have  root  or  root- 
stock,  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  both  open  and  in  bud,  and  fruit.  Some- 
times these  may  all  be  obtained  at  oue  gathering  ;  more  commonly  two  or 
three  gatherings  at  different  times  are  requisite,  especially  for  trees  and 
shrubs. 

558.  In  Herborizing,  a  good  knife  and  a  narrow  and  strong  trowel  are 
needed ;  but  a  very  strong  knife  will  serve  instead  of  a  trowel  or  small  pick 
for  digging  out  bulbs,  tubers,  and  the  like.  To  carry  the  specimens,  either 
the  tin  box  {casculum)  or  a  portfolio,  or  both  are  required.  The  tin  box  is 
best  for  the  collection  of  specimens  to  be  used  fresh,  as  in  the  class-room  : 
also  for  very  thick  or  fleshy  plants.  The  ])ortfolio  is  indispensable  fur  long 
expeditions,  and  is  best  for  specimens  which  are  to  be  preserved  in  the 
herbarium. 

559.  The  Vasculum,  or  Botanical  Collecting-box,  is  made  of  tin,  in  shape 
Uke  a  candle-box,  only  flatter,  or  the  smaller  sizes  like  an  English  sandwich- 
case  ;  the  lid  opening  for  nearly  the  whole  length  of  oue  side  of  the  box. 
Any  portable  tin  box  of  convenient  size,  and  capable  of  holding  specimens 
a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  long,  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  box  should  shut 
close,  so  that  the  specimens  may  not  wilt :  then  it  will  keep  leafy  branches 
and  most  flowers  perfectly  fresh  for  a  day  or  two,  especially  if  slightly 
moistened.     They  should  not  be  wet. 

560.  The  Portfolio  is  best  made  of  two  pieces  of  solid  binder's-board, 
covered  with  enamel  cloth,  which  also  forms  the  back,  and  fastened  by 
straps  and  buckles.  It  may  be  from  a  foot  to  twenty  inches  long,  from 
nine  to  eleven  or  twelve  inches  wide.  It  should  contain  a  needful  quantity 
of  smooth  but  strong  and  pliable  paper  (thin  so-called  Manilla  paper  is 
best),  either  fastened  at  the  back  as  in  a  book,  or  loose  in  folded  sheets 
when  not  very  many  specimens  are  required.  As  soon  as  gathered,  the 
specimens  should  be  separately  laid  between  the  leaves  or  in  the  folded 
3l)i;ets.  aii'l  kcnt  under  moderate  pressure  in  the  closed  portfolio. 

^  For  fuller  directions  ia  many  particulars,  see  "  Structural  Botany,"  pp.  370- 
574. 


SECTION    19.]  HERBORIZATION,  185 

561.  Of  small  herbs,  especially  annuals,  the  whole  plant,  root  and  all, 
should  be  taken  for  a  specimen.  Of  larger  ones  branches  will  suffice,  with 
some  leaves  from  near  tlie  root.  Enough  of  the  root  or  subterranean  part 
of  the  plant  should  be  collected  to  show  whether  it  is  an  annual,  a 
biennial,  or  a  perennial.  Thick  roots,  bulbs,  tubers,  or  branches  of  speci- 
mens intended  to  be  pressed  should  be  thinned  with  a  knife,  or  cut  into 
slices.  Keep  the  specimens  within  the  length  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches, 
by  folding,  or  when  tliat  cannot  be  done,  by  cutting  into  lengths. 

562.  For  Drying  Specimens  a  good  supply  of  soft  and  unsized 
paper  is  wanted;  and  some  convenient  means  of  applying  considerable 
pressure.  To  make  good  dried  botanical  specimens,  dry  them  as  rapidly 
as  possible  between  many  thicknesses  of  sun-dried  paper  to  absorb  their 
moisture,  under  as  much  pressure  as  can  be  given  without  crushing  the 
more  delicate  parts.  This  pressure  may  be  had  by  a  botanical  press,  of 
which  various  forms  have  been  contrived ;  or  by  weights  placed  upon  a 
board,  —  from  forty  to  eighty  or  a  hundred  pounds,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  specimens  drying  at  the  time.  Por  use  while  travelling,  a 
good  portable  press  may  be  made  of  thick  binders'  boards  for  tlie  sides, 
and  the  pressure  may  be  applied  by  strong  straps  with  buckles.  Still 
better,  on  some  accounts,  are  portable  presses  made  of  wire  network, 
which  allow  the  dampness  to  escape  by  evaporation  between  the  meshes. 
For  herborization  in  a  small  way,  a  light  wire-press  may  be  taken  into 
the  field  and  made  to  serve  also  as  a  portfolio. 

563.  It  is  well  to  have  two  kinds  of  paper,  namely,  driers  of  bibulous 
paper,  stitched  into  pads  (or  tlie  pads  may  be  of  thick  carpet-paper,  cut  to 
size)  and  thin  smooth  paper,  folded  once;  the  specimens  to  be  laid  into  the 
fold,  either  when  gathered  or  on  returning  from  the  excursion.  These 
sheets  are  to  hold  the  specimens  until  they  are  quite  dry.  Every  day,  or 
at  first  even  twice  a  day,  the  specimens,  left  undisturbed  in  their  sheets, 
are  to  be  shifted  into  fire-dried  or  sun-dried  fresh  driers,  and  the  pressure 
renewed,  while  the  moist  sheets  arc  spread  out  to  dry,  so  as  to  take  their 
turn  again  at  the  next  shifting.  This  course  must  be  continued  until  the 
specimens  are  no  longer  moist  to  t  lie  touch.  Good  and  comely  specimens 
are  either  made  or  spoiled  within  the  first  twenty-four  or  tSirty-six  hours. 
After  that,  when  plenty  of  driers  are  used,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
change  them  so  frequently. 

564.  Succulent  plants,  which  long  refuse  to  part  with  life  and  moisture, 
and  Spruces  and  some  other  evergreens  which  are  apt  to  cast  off  their 
leaves,  may  be  plunged  for  a  moment  into  boiling  water,  all  but  the  flowers. 
Delicate  flowers  may  be  encased  in  thin  tissue  paper  when  put  into  the  press. 
Thick  parts,  like  the  heads  of  Sun-flowers  and  Thistles,  may  be  cut  in  two 
or  into  slices. 

565.  Dried  specimens  may  be  packed  in  bundles,  either  in  folded  paper 
or  upon  single  hall'-slicets.  It  is  better  that  such  paper  should  not  be 
bibulous.     The  packages  should  be  well  wrapped  or  kept  in  close  cases. 


18G  BOTANICAL  WORK.  [SECTION    19. 

566.  Poisoning  is  necessary  if  specimens  are  to  be  pcrniauently  pre- 
served from  the  depredation  of  insects.  The  usual  application  is  an  almost 
saturated  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  95  per  cent  alcoliol,  freely  ap- 
plied wilh  a  laxge  and  soft  brush,  or  the  specimens  dipped  into  some  of  the 
solution  poured  into  a  large  aud  flat  dislij  the  wetted  specimens  to  be 
transferred  for  a  short  time  to  driers. 


§  2.     HERBARIUM. 

567.  The  botanist's  collection  of  dried  specimens,  ticketed  with  their 
names,  place,  and  time  of  collection,  and  systematically  arranged  under 
their  geiicra,  orders,  etc.,  forms  a  Hortus  Siccus  or  Heriarium.  It  com- 
prises not  only  the  specimens  which  the  proprietor  has  himself  collected, 
but  those  which  he  acquires  through  friendly  exchanges,  or  in  other  ways. 
The  specimens  of  an  herbarium  may  be  kept  in  folded  sheets  of  paper; 
or  they  may  be  fastened  on  half-sheets  of  thick  and  white  paper,  either 
by  gummed  slips,  or  by  glue  applied  to  the  specimens  themselves.  The 
former  is  best  for  private  and  small  herbaria;  tbe  latter  for  large  ones 
which  are  much  turned  over.  Each  sheet  should  be  appropriated  to  one 
species;  two  or  more  ditlerent  plants  should  never  be  attached  to  the  same 
sheet.  The  generic  and  specific  name  of  the  plant  should  be  added  to 
the  lower  right-hand  corner,  either  written  on  the  sheet,  or  on  a  ticket 
pasted  down;  and  the  time  of  collection,  the  locality,  the  color  of  the 
flowers,  and  any  other  information  which  the  specimens  themselves  do 
not  afford,  should  be  duly  recorded  upon  the  sheet  or  the  ticket.  The 
sheets  of  the  herbarium  should  all  be  of  exactly  the  same  dimensions. 
The  herbarium  of  Linnaeus  is  on  paper  of  the  common  foolscap  size,  about 
eleven  inches  long  and  seven  wide.  Tliis  is  too  small.  Sixteen  and  three 
eighths  inches  by  eleven  and  a  half  inches  is  an  approved  size. 

508.  The  sheets  containing  the  species  of  each  genus  are  to  be  placed 
\\\  genus-covers,  made  of  a  full  sheet  of  thick  paper  (such  as  the  strong- 
est Manilla-hemp  paper),  to  be  when  folded  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
s])ecies-sheet  but  slightly  wider:  the  name  of  the  genus  is  to  be  writ- 
ten on  one  of  the  lower  corners.  These  are  to  be  arranged  under  the 
orders  to  which  tliey  belong,  and  the  whole  kept  in  closed  cases  or  cabi- 
nets, either  laid  flat  in  compartments,  like  "pigeon-holes,"  or  else  placed 
in  thick  portfolios,  arranged  like  folio  volumes.  All  should  be  kept,  as 
much  as  practicable,  in  dust-proof  and  insect-proof  cases  or  boxes. 

569.  Fruits,  tubers,  and  other  hard  prirts,  too  thick  for  the  herbarium, 
may  be  kept  in  pasteboard  or  light  wooden  bo.xes,  in  a  collection  apart. 
Small  loose  fruits,  seeds,  (letaohed  flowers,  aud  the  like  mny  be  conven- 
iently preserved  in  paper  capsules  or  envelopes,  attached  to  the  herbarium- 
sheets. 


SECTION    19.]      INVESTIGATION  AND  DETERMINATION.  187 


§  3-.     INVESTIGATION  AND  DETERMINATION  OF  PLANTS. 

570.  The  Implements  required  are  a  band  maguil'ying  glass,  a  pocket 
lens  of  an  inch  or  two  focus,  or  a  glass  of  two  lenses,  one  of  the  lower 
and  the  other  of  the  higher  power;  and  a  sharp  penknife  for  dissection. 
With  these  and  reasonable  perseverance  tiie  structure  of  the  flowers  and 
fructification  of  most  phanerogamous  plants  and  Ferns  can  be  made  out. 
But  for  ease  and  comfort,  as  well  as  for  certainty  and  riglit  training,  the 
student  should  have  some  kind  of  simple  stage  microscope,  and  under 
this  make  all  dissections  of  small  parts.  Without  it  the  student  will  be 
apt  to  fall  into  the  bad  habit  of  guessing  where  he  ought  to  ascertain. 

571.  The  simple  microscope  may  be  reduced  to  a  good  lens  or  doublet, 
of  an  inch  focus,  mounted  over  a  glass  stage,  so  that  it  can  be  moved  up 
and  down  and  also  side  wise,  and  with  (or  without)  a  Utile  mirror  under- 
neath. A  better  one  would  have  one  or  two  additional  lenses  (say  of  half 
and  of  a  quarter  inch  focus),  a  pretty  large  stage,  on  the  glass  of  which 
several  small  ol)jects  can  be  placed  and  conveniently  brought  under  the 
lens ;  and  its  height  or  that  of  the  lens  should  be  adjustable  by  a  rack- 
work  ;  also  a  swivel-mounted  little  mirror  beneath,  which  is  needed  for 
minute  objects  to  be  viewed  by  transmitted  light. 

572.  For  dissecting  and  displaying  small  parts  on  the  stage  of  the 
microscope,  besides  a  thin-bladed  knife,  the  only  tools  needed  are  a  good 
stock  of  common  needles  of  various  sizes,  mounted  in  handles,  and  one  or 
more  saddler's-needles,  which,  being  triangular,  may  be  ground  to  sharp 
edges  convenient  for  dissection.  Also  a  pair  of  delicate-pointed  forceps ; 
those  with  curved  points  used  by  the  dentist  are  most  convenient.  A 
cup  of  clean  water  is  indispensable,  with  which  to  moisten  or  wet,  or 
in  which  occasionally  to  float  delicate  parts.  Small  flowers,  buds,  fruits, 
and  seeds  of  dried  specimens  can  be  dissected  quite  as  well  as  fresh  ones. 
They  have  only  to  be  soaked  in  warm  or  boiling  water. 

573.  The  compound  microscope  is  rarely  necessary  except  in  crypto- 
gamic  botany  and  vegetable  anatomy ;  but  it  is  very  useful  and  convenient, 
especially  for  the  examination  of  pollen.  To  the  advanced  botanist  it  is  a 
necessity,  to  all  students  of  botany  an  aid  and  delight. 

574.  Analysis.  A  few  directions  and  hints  may  be  given.  The  most 
important  is  this:  In  studying  an  unknown  plant,  make  a  complete  ex- 
amination of  all  its  parts,  and  form  a  clear  idea  of  its  floral  structure 
and  that  of  its  fruit,  from  pericarp  down  to  the  embryo,  or  as  far  as  the 
materials  in  hand  allow,  before  taking  a  step  toward  finding  out  its  name 
and  relationship  by  means  of  the  keys  or  other  helps  which  the  Manuals 
and  Floras  provide.  If  it  is  the  name  merely  that  is  wanted,  the  shorter 
way  is  to  ask  some  one  who  already  knows  it.  To  verify  the  points  of 
structure  one  by  one  as  they  happen  to  occur  in  an  artificial  key,  without 
any  preparatory  investigation,  is  a  usual  but  is  not  the  best  nor  the  surest 


188  BOTANICAL   WORK.  [SECTION    19. 

way.  It  is  well  to  make  drawings  or  outline  sketches  of  tlie  smaller  parts, 
aud  especially  diagrams  of  tlie  plan  of  the  llovver,  such  as  tiiose  of  Fig. 
225,  227,  241,  244,  275-277.  Fur  these,  cross  sections  of  the  llower-bud 
or  flower  are  to  be  made :  aiid  longitudinal  sections,  such  as  Fig.  270-274, 
are  equally  important.  The  dissection  even  of  small  seeds  is  not  difficult 
after  some  practice.     Commonly  they  need  to  be  soaked  or  boiled. 

575.  The  right  appreciation  of  characters  and  terms  used  in  description 
needs  practice  and  calls  for  judgment.  Plants  do  not  grow  exactly  by 
rule  and  plummet,  and  measurements  must  be  taken  loosely.  Difference 
of  soil  and  situation  are  responded  to  by  considerable  variations,  and  other 
divergences  occur  which  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  surroundings,  nor 
be  anticipated  i)i  geneial  descriptions.  Annuals  may  be  very  depauperate 
in  dry  soils  or  seasons,  or  very  large  when  particularly  well  nourished. 
Warm  and  arid  situations  promote,  and  wet  ones  are  apt  to  diminish  pubes- 
cence. Salt  water  causes  increased  succulence.  The  color  of  flowers  is 
apt  to  be  lighter  in  shade,  and  brighter  in  open  and  elevated  situations. 
A  color  or  hue  not  normal  to  the  species  now  and  then  occurs,  which 
nothing  in  the  conditions  will  account  for.  A  tchite-flowered  variation  of 
any  other  colored  blossom  maij  always  be  expected ;  this,  though  it  may  be 
notable,  no  more  indicates  a  distinct  variety  of  the  species  than  au  albino 
would  a  variety  of  tlie  human  species.  The  numerical  plan  is  subject  to 
variation  in  some  flowers  ;  those  on  the  plan  of  five  may  now  and  then  vary 
to  four  or  to  six.  Variations  of  the  outline  or  lobing  of  leaves  are  so  familiar 
that  they  do  not  much  mislead.  Only  wider  and  longer  observation  suf- 
fices to  prevent  or  correct  mistakes  in  botanical  study.  But  the  weighing 
of  evidence  and  the  balancing  of  probabilities,  no  less  than  the  use  of  the 
well-ordered  and  logical  system  of  classification,  give  as  excellent  training 
to  the  judgment  as  the  search  for  the  facts  themselves  does  to  the  observing 
powers. 

§  4.     SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 

576.  For  a  full  account  of  these,  whetlier  of  former  or  actual  use,  see 
"  Structural  Botany  "  of  the  "  Botanical  Text  Book,"  pp.  367,  392,  as  also 
for  the  principles  which  govern  the  accentuation  of  names.  It  is  needful 
here  to  explain  only  those  used  in  the  Manuals  and  Floras  of  this  country, 
for  which  the  present  volume  is  an  introduction  and  companion.  They 
are  not  numerous. 

577.  In  arranging  the  species,  at  least  those  of  a  large  genus,  the  divi- 
sions are  denoted  and  graduated  as  follows  :  The  sign  §  is  prefixed  to  sec- 
tions of  the  highest  rank  :  these  sections  when  they  have  names  affixed  to 
them  (as  Prunus  §  Cerasus)  may  be  called  subgenera.  When  the  divi- 
sions of  a  genus  are  not  of  such  importance,  or  when  divisions  are  made 
under  the  subgenus  itself,  the  most  comprehensive  ones  are  marked  by  as- 
terisks, ■■■■  fjr  the  first,  *  *  for  the  second,  and  so  on.     Subdivisions  are 


SECTION    19.]  SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS.  189 

marked  witli  a  prefixed  h-  ;  those  under  this  head  with  ++ ;  and  those 
under  this  with  =,  if  there  be  so  many  grades.  A  similar  uotation  is  fol- 
lowed in  the  synopsis  of  the  genera  of  an  order. 

578.  The  interrogation  point  is  used  in  botany  to  indicate  doubt.  Thus 
Clematis  crispa,  L.?  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  plant  in  question  is 
really  the  Clematis  crispa  of  Linuaus.  Clematis  ?  polyjietala  expresses 
a  doubt  whether  the  plant  so  named  is  really  a  Clematis.  On  liie  other 
hand  the  exclamation  point  (!)  is  used  to  denote  certainty  whenever  there 
is  special  need  to  affirm  this. 

579.  For  size  or  height,  the  common  signs  of  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds,  have  been  used,  thus,  1°,  2',  3",  stand  respectively  for  a  foot, 
two  inches,  and  three  lines  or  twelfths  of  an  inch.  A  better  way,  when 
such  brevity  is  needed,  is  to  write  1".  2'".  li'. 

580.  Signs  for  duration  used  by  Linnseus  were  ©  for  an  annual,  J  for 
a  biennial,  %  for  a  perennial  herb,  5  lor  a  shrub  or  tree.  DeCandolle 
brought  in  0  for  a  plant  that  died  after  once  flowering,  ®  if  annual,  (2) 
if  bienniiil. 

581.  To  indicate  sexes,  5  means  staminate  or  male  plant  or  blossom; 
9 ,  pistillate  or  female ;    g  ,  perfect  or  hermaphrodite. 

582.  To  save  room  it  is  not  uncommon  to  use  oo  in  place  of  "  many ;  "  thus, 
*'  Stamens  00,"  for  stamens  indefinitely  numerous  :  "  00  fiora  "  for  pluriHora 
or  many-flowered.  Still  more  common  is  the  form  "  Stamens  5-20,"  or 
"  Calyx  4-5-parted,"  for  stamens  from  five  to  twenty,  calyx  four-parted  or 
five-parted,  and  the  like.     Such  abbreviations  hardly  need  explanation. 

583.  The  same  may  be  said  of  such  abbreviations  as  Cal.  for  calyx, 
Cor.  for  corolla,  Pet.  for  petals,  St.  for  stamens.  Fist,  for  pistil.  Hah.  for 
habitat,  meaning  place  of  growth.  Herb,  for  herbarium,  Hort.  for  garden. 
Also  /.  c,  loco  citato,  which  avoids  rej)etition  of  volume  and  page. 

584.  "Structural  Botany"  has  six  pages  of  abbreviations  of  the  names 
of  botanists,  mostly  of  botanical  authors.  As  they  are  not  of  much 
consequence  to  the  beginner,  while  the  more  advanced  botanist  will  know 
the  names  in  full,  or  know  where  to  find  them,  only  a  selection  is  here 
appended. 


190 


ABBREVIATIONS  OF  THE  NAMES  OF  BOTANISTS. 


ABBREVIATIONS   OF  THE   NAMES  OP   BOTANISTS. 


Adans. 

Ait. 

All. 

Andr. 

Arn. 

Aub. 

Bartr. 

Brauv. 

Benth. 

Bernh. 

Bigel. 

Bong. 

Bon  pi. 

Br.  or  R. 

Cass. 

Cav. 

Cham. 

Chapm. 

Ckois. 

Clayt. 

Curt. 

Curt.  {M. 

Barl. 

LC. 

DeCand. 

A.  DC. 

Desc. 

Lesf. 

Desv. 

Dili: 

Bougl. 

Duham. 

Dun. 

Eat. 

Ehrh. 

Ell. 

Errdl. 

Engelm. 

E>,gl. 

Fisch. 

Frcel. 

Gcertn. 

Gaud. 

Gaudich. 

Ginff. 


=  Adanson. 

Gmel.         : 

=  Ginolin. 

Aiton. 

Good. 

Goodenough. 

AUioni. 

Greo. 

GreviUe. 

Andrews. 

Griseb. 

Grisebach. 

Arnott. 
Aublet. 

Gron. 
Gronov. 

]•  Gronoffius. 

Bartram. 

Hall. 

Ilaller. 

Palisot  de  Beauvois. 

llartm. 

Ilartmann. 

Benthain. 

llartw. 

Ilartweg. 

Bernhardi. 

llarv. 

Harvey. 

Jacob  Bigtlow. 

Haw. 

Haworth. 

Bongard. 

H eg  elm. 

Higelmaier. 

Bonpland. 

Hem  si. 

Hemsley. 

Br.  Robert  Brown. 

Herb. 

Herbert. 

Cassini. 

I  I  off  m. 

Hoffmann. 

Cavanilles. 

Uoffmans. 

HofFmansegg. 

Chaniisso. 

Hook. 

Hooker. 

Chapman. 

llook.f. 

J.  D.  Hooker. 

Choisy. 

llornem. 

Hornemann. 

Clayton. 

Uiids. 

Hudson. 

Curtis. 

lh(mb. 

Humboldt.             [Kunth. 

A.)  M.  A.  Curtis. 

HBK. 

Humboldt,  Bonpland,  aad 

Darlington. 

Jacq. 

Jacquin. 

•  DeCandolle. 

Jacq.f. 
Juss. 

J.  F.  Jacquin. 
Jussieu. 

Alphoiise  DeCandolle. 

A.  Juss. 

Adricn  de  JnssietL 

Descourtilz. 

Kit. 

Kitaibel. 

Desfontaines. 

L.  or  Linn. 

Linn.TUs. 

Desvanx, 

LabUl. 

Labillardiere. 

Dillon  ius. 

Lag. 

Lagasca. 

Douglas. 

Lam. 

Lamarck. 

Duhamel. 

Ledeb. 

Ledebour. 

Dunal. 

Lehm. 

Lehmann. 

Eaton  (Amos)  or   D.  C. 

Lesq. 

Lesquereux. 

Ehrhart. 

Less. 

Lcssing. 

Elliott. 

Lestib. 

Lestibudois. 

Endlicher. 

L'Her. 

L'Heritier. 

Engelmann. 

Lindb. 

Lindberg. 

Engler. 

Lindh. 

Lindheimer. 

Fischer. 

Lindl. 

Lindley. 

Froelich. 

Lodd. 

Loddiges. 

Gsertner. 

Loud. 

Loudon. 

Gaudin. 

M.  Bieb. 

Marschall  von  Bieberstein. 

Gaudichaud. 

Marsh. 

Marshall  (Humphrey). 

Gingins. 

Mart. 

Martius. 

ABBREVIATIONS  OF  THE   NAMES  OF  BOTANISTS. 


191 


Mast.        = 

=  Masters. 

Ihem.^-Schnlt.  =  Rujuier  &  Schulte8. 

Maxim. 

.   Maximowicz. 

Rottb. 

Rottboell. 

Meisn. 

Meistier  or 
Meissner. 

Riipr. 

Ruprecht. 

Ahissn. 

St.  Hit. 

Saint- Hilaire. 

Michx.  or  M 

./.  Michaux. 

Sa/isb. 

Salisbury. 

Michx.f. 

F.  A.  Michaux. 

Schk. 

Schkuhr. 

Mill. 

Miller. 

Schlecht. 

SchlechtendaL 

Miq. 

Miquel. 

Schrad. 

Schrader. 

Mitch. 

Mitchell. 

Schreb. 

Schreber. 

Moq. 

Mo9ino. 

Schwein. 

Suhweinitz. 

Moq. 

Moquiii-Tandon. 

Scop. 

Scopoli. 

Moric. 

Moricand. 

Spreng. 

Sprengel. 

Moris. 

Morison. 

Sternb. 

Sternberg. 

Muell.  Arg. 

J.  Mueller. 

Sieud. 

Steudel. 

MuelL  {F.) 

Ferdinand  Mueller. 

Sail. 

Sullivant. 

Muhl. 

Muhlenberg. 

Thiinb. 

Thunberg. 

Murr. 

Murray. 

Torr. 

Torrey. 

Naud. 

Naudin. 

Tourn. 

Tournefort. 

Neck. 

Necker. 

Trautv. 

Trautvetter. 

Nees 

•  Nees  von  Esenbeck. 

Trin. 

Trinius. 

N.  ab  E. 

Tuck. 

Tuckerraaa. 

Nutt. 

Nut  tall. 

Vaill. 

VaiUant. 

(Ed. 

CEder. 

Vent. 

Ventenat. 

Ort. 

Ortega. 

nil. 

Villars. 

P.  de  Beauv 

.  Palisot  de  Beauvois. 

Wahl. 

Wablenberg. 

Pall. 

Pallas. 

Walds. 

Waldstein. 

Pari. 

Parlatore. 

Wall. 

WaUich. 

Pav. 

Pavon. 

Wallr 

Wallroth. 

Pers. 

Persoon. 

Walp. 

Walpers. 

Planch. 

Planchon. 

Walt. 

Walter. 

Pluk. 

Plukenet. 

Wang. 

Wangenheim. 

Plum. 

Plumier. 

Wats. 

Sereno  Watson,  unless 

Poir. 

Poiret. 

other  initials  are  given 

Radlk. 

Radlkofer. 

Wedd. 

Weddell. 

PLaf. 

Rafinesque. 

Wendl. 

Wendland. 

Red. 

Redoute. 

Wiks. 

Wikstrom. 

Reichenb 

Reichenbach. 

Willd. 

Willdenow. 

Rich. 

L.  C.  Richard. 

Wulf. 

Wulfen. 

Rich.f.  or  A 

Achille  Richard. 

Zucc. 

Zuccarini. 

Richard*. 

Richardson. 

Zuccag. 

Zuccagini. 

Ridd. 

BiddeU. 

GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX, 

OR 

DICTIONARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  TERMS  IN  DESCRIPTIVE 
BOTANY,  COMBINED  WITH  AN   INDEX. 


For  the  convenience  of  unclassical  students,  the  commoner  Latin  and  Greek  words  (or 
tlieir  equivalents  in  English  form)  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  botanical  names,  as 
well  as  of  technical  terms,  are  added  to  this  Glossary.    The  numbers  refer  to  pages. 


A,  at  the  beginning  of  words  of  Greek  derivation,  commonly  signifies  a  negative, 
or  the  absence  of  something  ;  as  apetalous,  without  petals;  aphj'llous,  leaf- 
less, &c.  In  words  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  prefix  is  an;  as  a^iantherous, 
destitute  of  anther. 

A  hnnrmal,  contrary  to  the  usual  or  the  natural  structure. 

Aboriginal,  original  in  the  strictest  sense;  same  as  indigenous. 

Abortive,  imperfectly  formed,  or  rudimentary. 

Abortion,  the  imperfect  formation  or  the  non-formation  of  some  part. 

Abrupt,  suddenly  terminating  ;  as,  for  instance, 

Abruptly  piRnate,  pinnate  without  an  odd  leaflet  at  the  end,  58. 

Acantho-,  spiny. 

Acaulescent  (acaulis),  apparently  stemless;  the  proper  stem,  bearing  the  leaves 
and  flowers,  being  very  short  or  subterranean. 

Accessory,  something  additional;  as  Accessory  buds,  30,  31  ;  Accessory  fruits,  118. 

Accrescent,  growing  larger  after  flowering. 

Accrete,  grown  to. 

Accumbent,  lying  against  a  thing.  The  cotyledons  are  accumbent  when  they  lie 
with  their  edges  against  the  radicle,  128. 

Acephalous,  headless. 

A  cerose,  needle-shaped,  as  the  leaves  of  Pines. 

A  cetabuliform,  saucer-shaped. 

Achoenium,  or  Achenium  (plural  acheni,a),  a  one-seeded,  seed-like  fruit,  120. 

Achlamydeotis  (rtower),  without  floral  envelopes,  86. 

Acicular,  needle-shajied;  more  slender  than  acerose. 

Acinaciform,  scimitar-shaped,  like  some  bean-pods. 

Acines,  the  separate  grains  of  a  fruit,  such  as  the  raspberry. 

Acorn,  the  nut  of  the  Oak,  122. 

Acotyledonous,  destitute  of  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves. 

Acrogenous,  growinc:  fi-om  the  apex,  as  the  stems  of  Ferns  and  Mosses.  Acrogens, 
or  Acrogenous  Plants,  a  name  for  the  vascular  cryptogamous  plants,  156. 

Aculeate,  armeil  with  prickles,  i.  e.  aculei ;  as  the  Rose  and  Brier. 

Aculeolate,  armed  witli  small  prickles,  or  slightly  prickly. 

Acuminate,  taper-jiointed,  5t. 

Acute,  merely  sharp-pointed,  or  ending  in  a  point  less  than  a  right  angle,  54. 


194  GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX. 

Adelphous  (stamens),  joined  in  a  fraternity  (ndelphia);  see  inoiiadelphous,  &c. 

Aden,  Greek  for  gland.     So  Adenophorous,  gland-beaiing. 

Adherejit,  sticking  to,  or  more  conirnonly,  growing  fast  to  another  body. 

Adnate,  literally,  growing  fast  to,  born  adherent,  95.     The  anther  is  aduate  when 

lixed  by  its  whole  length  to  the  hlament  or  its  prolongation,  lUl. 
Adnation,  the  state  of  being  adnate,  'J4. 

Adpressed  or  appressed,  brought  into  contact  with,  but  not  united. 
Adscendent,  ascendent,  or  ascending,  rising  gradually  ujjwards,  39. 
Adsurgeiit,  or  assurgent,  same  as  ascending,  39. 

Adventitious,  out  of  the  proper  or  usual  place;  e.  g.  Adventitiaas  buds,  30. 
Adventive,  apjilied  to  foreign  plants  accidentally  or  sparingly  introduced  into  a 

country,  but  hardly  to  be  called  naturalized, 
^Equilateral,  equal-side<l ;  opposed  to  oblique. 
Aerial  roots,  &c.,  36. 
jEruginous,  verdigris-colored. 
jEstival,  produced  in  summer. 

jEstivation,  the  arrangement  of  parts  in  a  flower-bud,  97. 
Agamous,  sexless. 
Aggregate  fruits,  118. 
Agrestis,  growing  in  fields. 

Air-cells  or  Air-2Mssages,  spaces  in  the  tissue  of  leaves  and  some  stems,  131. 
Air- Plants,  36. 
Akene  or  Akenium,  120. 

Ala  (plural,  ake),  a  wing;  the  side-petals  of  a  papilionaceous  corolla,  92. 
Alabastrum,  a  flower-hud. 
Alar,  situated  in  the  forks  of  a  stem. 
Alate,  winged. 

Albescent,  whitish,  or  turning  white. 
Albus,  Latin  for  white. 

Albumen  of  the  seed,  nourishing  matter  stored  up  with  the  embryo,  21,  127. 
Albumen,  a  vegetable  product,  of  four  elements. 
A  Ibujninous  {^eeds),  furnished  with  albumen,  21. 
Alburnum;  young  wood,  sap-wood,  142. 
Alliaceous,  with  odor  of  garlic. 
Allogamous,  close  fertilization. 
Alpestrine,  subalpine. 

Alpine,  belonging  to  high  mountains  above  the  limit  of  forests. 
Alternate  (leaves),    one   after   another,    29,    67.      Petals   are   alternate  with   the 

sepals,  or  stamens  with  the  petals,  when  they  stand  over  the  intervals  between 

them,  82. 
Alveolate,  honeycomb-like. 

Ament,  the  scaly  spike  of   trees  like  the  Birch  and  Willow,  75. 
Amentaceous,  catkin-like,  or  catkin-bearing. 
Amorphous,  shapeless,  without  any  definite  form. 
Amphicarpous,  producing  two  kinds  of  fruit. 

Amphigastrium  (plural,  amphigastria),  a  peculiar  stipule-like  leaf  of  Liverworts. 
Amphitropous,  ovules  or  seeds.  111. 
Amphora,  a  pitcher-shaped  organ. 

Amplectant,  embracing.     Amplexicaul  (leaves),  clasping  the  stem  by  the  base. 
Ampullaceous,  swelling  out  like  a  bottle  or  bladder  {ampulla). 
Amylaceous,  Amyloid,  composed  of  starch  (amylum),  or  starch-like. 
Anandrous,  without  stamens. 

Anantherous,  without  anthers.     Ananthovs,  destitute  of  flowers  ;  flowerless. 
Anastomosing,  forming  a  net-work  {anastomosis),  as  the  veins  of  leaves,  50. 
Anntripous  ovules  or  seeds.  111. 
Ancipital  {anceps),  two-edged. 
Andrcecium,  a  name  for  the  stamens  taken  together,  98. 


GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX.  195 

AnfJro-tHoeciotts,  flowers  staniinate  on  one  plant,  perfect  on  another. 
Androgynous,  having  both  starainate  and  pistillate  flowers  in  the  same  cluster. 
Androphore,  a  column  of  united  stamens,  as  in  a  Mallow. 
Androus,  or  Ander,  andra,  andrum,  Greek  in  compounds  for  male,  or  stamens. 
Anemophilous,  wiud-loviug,  said  of  wind-fertilizable  flowers,  113. 
Anfractuose,  bent  hither  and  thither  as  the  anthers  of  the  Squash,  &c. 
An</iosperinm,  Angiospermous,  with  seeds  formed  in  an  ovary  or  pericarp,  109. 
Angular  divergence  of  leaves,  69. 

Anisos,  unequal.     Anisomerous,  parts  unequal  in  number.     Anisopetalous,  with  un- 
equal petals.     Anisophyllous,  the  leaves  unequal  in  the  pairs. 
Annual  (plant),  flowering  and  fruiting  the  year  it  is  raised  from  the  seed,  and  then 

dying,  37. 
Annular,  in  the  form  of  a  ring,  or  forming  a  circle. 
Annulate,  marked  by  rings;  or  furnished  with  an 

Annulus,  or  ring,  like  that  of  the  spore-case  of  most  Ferns.    In  Mosses  it  is  a  ring 
of  cells  placed  between  the  mouth  of  the  spore-case  and  the  lid  in  many  species. 
Annotinous,  yearly,  or  in  yearly  growths. 

Anterior,  in  the  blossom,  is  the  part  next  the  bract,  i.  e.  external;    while  the 
posterior  side  is  that  next  the  axis  of  inflorescence.     Thus,  in  the  Pea,  &c.,  the 
keel  is  anterior,  and  the  standard  posterior,  96. 
Anthela,  an  open  paniculate  cyme. 
Anther,  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen,  which  contains  the  pollen,  14,  80,  101. 

Antkeridium  (plural  antheridia),  the  organ  in  Cryptogams  which  answers  to  the 

anther  of  Flowering  Plants,  150. 
Antkeriferous,  anther-bearing. 

Antkesis,  the  period  or  the  act  of  the  expansion  of  a  flower. 

Antliocai'pus  (fruits),  118. 

Anthophore,  a  stipe  between  calyx  and  corolla,  113. 

Anlhos,  Greek  for  flower  ;  iu  composition,  Monanthous,  one-flowered,  &c. 

Anticous,  same  as  anterior. 

Antrorse,  directed  upwards  or  forwards. 

Apetalous,  destitute  of  petals,  86. 

Aphyllous,  leafless. 

Apical,  belonging  to  the  apex  or  point. 

Apiculate,  pointleted;  tipped  with  a  small  point. 

Apocarpous  (pistils),  when  the  several  pistils  of  the  same  flower  are  separate. 

Apophysis,  any  irregular  swelling  ;  the  enlargement  at  the  base  of  the  spore-case  of 
the  Umbrella-Moss. 

Apothecium,  the  fructification  of  Lichens,  171. 

Appendage,  any  superadded  part.     Appendiculate,  provided  with  appendages. 

Appressed,  close  pressed  to  the  stem,  kc. 

Apricus,  growing  in  dry  and  sunny  places. 

Apterous,  wingless. 

Aquatic  {Aquatilis),  li\ing  or  growing  in  water ;  applied  to  plants  whether  growing 
under  water,  or  with  all  but  the  base  raised  out  of  it. 

Arachnoid,  Araneose,  cobwebby;  clothed  with,  or  consisting  of,  soft  downy  fibres. 

Arboreous,  Arborescent,  tree-like,  in  size  or  form,  39. 

Arboretum,  a  collection  of  trees. 

Archegonium  (plural  archegonia),  the  organ  in  Mosses,  &c.,  which  is  analogous  to 
the  pistil  of  Flowering  Plants. 

Arcuate,  bent  or  curved  like  a  bow. 

Arenose  (Arenarius),  growing  in  sand. 

Areolate,  marked  out  into  little  spaces  or  areolae. 

Argenteous,  or  Argentale,  silvery-like. 

Argillose,  growing  in  clay. 

Argos,  Greek  for  pure  white  ;  Argophyllous  or  Argyi'ophyllous,  white-leaved,  &c. 

Argutus,  acutely  dentate. 


196  GLOSSARY   AND   LVDEX. 

Arillate  (seeds)  furnished  witli  an  aril. 

Arilliform,  aril-like. 

Ariiius,  or  Aril,  a  lleshy  growth  from  base  of  a  seed,  126. 

Aristate,  awued,  i.  e.  fui'iiished  with  an  arista,  like  the  beanl  of  Barley,  &c.,  54. 

Ai'istulate,  diminutive  of  tlie  last;  short-awned. 

Arrect,  brought  into  upriglit  position. 

Arrow-shaped  or  Arrow-headed,  same  as  sagittate,  .53. 

Articulated,  jointed ;  furnished  with  joints  or  articulations,  where  it  .separates  or 

inclines  to  do  so.     Articulated  leaves,  57. 
Artificial  Classification,  181. 

Ascending  (stems,  &c.),  39;  (seeds  or  ovules)  110. 
Ascidium,  a  pitcher-shaped  body,  like  leaves  of  Sarracenia. 
Ascus  (asci),  a  sac,  the  spore-case  of  Lichens  and  some  Fungi. 
Aspergilliforni,  shaped  like  the  brush  used  to  spriukle  holy  water;  as  the  stigmas 

of  many  Grasses. 
Asperous,  rough  to  touch. 
Assimilation,  144,  147. 
Assurgent,  same  as  ascending,  39. 
Atropous  or  Atropal  (ovules),  same  as  orthotropous. 
Aurantiacous,  orange-colored. 
Aureous,  golden. 

Auriculate,  furnished  with  auricles  or  ear-like  appendages,  53. 
Autogamy,  self-fertilization,  115. 
Awl-shaped,  sharp-pointed  from  a  broader  base,  61. 

Awn,  the  bristle  or  beard  of  Barley,  Oats,  &c.;  or  anj'  similar  appendage. 
Awned  or  Awn-pointed,  furnished  with  an  awn  or  long  bristle-shaped  tip,  54. 
Axil,  the  angle  on  the  upper  side  between  a  leaf  and  the  stem,  13. 
Axile,  belonging  to  the  axis,  or  occupying  the  axis. 
Axillary  (buds,  &c.),  occurring  in  an  axil,  27. 
Axis,  tlie  central  line  of  anybody  ;  the  organ  round  which  others  are  attached;  the 

root  and  stem.     Ascending  and  Descending  Axis,  38. 

Baccate,  berried,  berry-like,  of  a  pulpy-nature  like  a  berry  (bacca). 

Badius,  cliestnut-colored. 

Banner,  see  Standard,  92. 

Barbate,  bearded;  bearing  tufts,  spots,  or  lines  of  hairs. 

Barbed,  furnished  with  a  6ri/-6  or  double  liook  ;  as  the  apex  of  the  bristle  on  the 

fruit  of  Echinospermum  (Stickseed),  &c. 
Barbellate,  said  of  the  bristles  of  the  pappus  of  some  Coniposita;  when  beset  with 

short,  stiff  hairs,  longer  than  when  denticulate,  but  shorter  than  when  plumose. 
Barbellulate,  diminutive  of  barbellate. 
Bark,  the  covering  of  a  stem  outside  of  the  wood,  138,  140. 
Basal,  belonging  or  attached  to  the 

Base,  that  extremity  of  any  organ  by  which  it  is  attached  to  its  support. 
Basifixed,  attached  by  its  base. 
Bast,  Bast-fibres,  134. 
Beaked,  ending  in  a  prolonged  narrow  tip. 
Bearded,  see  barbate.     Beard  is  sometimes  used  for  awn,  more  commonly  for  long 

or  stiff  hairs  of  any  sort. 
BAl-shaped,  of  the  shape  of  a  bell,  as  the  corolla  of  Harebell,  90. 
Berry,  a  fruit  pulpy  or  juicy  throughout,  as  a  grape,  119. 
Bi-  (or  Bis),  in  compound  w^ords,  twice;  as 

Biarticulate,  twice-jointed,  or  two-jointed;  separating  into  two  pieces. 
Biauricidate,  having  two  ears,  as  the  leaf  in  fig.  126. 
Bicallnse,  having  two  callosities  or  harder  spots. 
Bicarinaie,  two-keeled. 
Bicipital  {Biceps) .  two-headed;  dividing  into  two  parts. 


GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX.  11)7 

Biconjugate,  twice  paired,  as  when  a  jjctiole  forks  twice. 

Bidentate,  having  two  teeth  (not  twice  or  doubly  dentate). 

Biennial,  of  two  years'  continuance;  springing  from  the  seed  one  season,  flowering 

anddying  the  next,  38. 
Bifarious,  two-ranked;  arranged  in  two  rows. 
Bijid,  two-cleft  to  about  the  middle. 
Bifuliolate,  a  compound  leaf  of  two  leatlets,  59. 

Bifurcate,  twice  forked;  or  more  commonly,  forked  into  two  branches. 
Bijuijate,  bearing  two  pairs  (of  leaflets,  &c.). 
Bilabiate,  two-lipped,  as  the  corolla  of  Labiata?. 
Bilamellate,  of  two  plates  {lainell(je),  as  the  stigma  of  Mimulus. 
Bilubed,  the  same  as  two-lobed. 
Bilocellate,  when  a  cell  is  divided  into  two  locelli. 
Bilocular,  two-celled;  as  most  anthers,  the  pod  of  Foxglove,  &c. 
Binary,  in  twos. 

Binate,  in  couples,  two  together.     Bipartite,  the  Latin  form  of  two-parted. 
Binodal,  of  two  nodes. 

Binomial,  of  two  words,  as  the  name  of  genus  and  species  taken  together,  180. 
Bipalmate,  twice  palmaiely  divided. 
Biparous,  heaxin^  two. 

Bipinnate  (leaf),  twice  pinnate,  58.     Bipinnatijid,  twice  pinnatifid,  57. 
Bipinnatisect,  twice  pinnately  divided. 
B'plicate,  twice  folded  together. 

Biserial,or  Biseriate,  occupying  two  rows  one  within  the  other. 
Biserrate,  doubly  serrate,  as  when  the  teeth  of  a  leaf  are  themselves  serrate. 
Bisexual,  having  both  stamens  and  pistil. 

Biternate,  twice  ternate;  i.  e,  principal  divisions  three,  each  bearing  tliree leaflets,  59. 
Bladdery,  thin  and  inflated. 
Blade  of  a  leaf,  its  expanded  portion,  49. 
Bloom,  the  whitish  powder  on  some  fruits,  leaves,  &c. 
Boat-shaped,  concave  within  and  keeled  without,  in  shape  like  a  small  boat. 
Border  of  corolla,  &c.,  89. 

Brachiate,  with  opposite  branches  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Bracky-,  short,  as  Brachycarpous,  short-fluited,  &c. 
Bract  (Bractea),  the  leaf  of  an  inflorescence.    Specially,  the  bract  is  the  small  leaf 

or  scale  from  the  axil  of  which  a  flower  or  its  pedicel  proceeds,  73. 
Bracieate,  furnished  with  bracts. 
Bracteolate,  furnished  with  bractlets. 
Bracteose,  with  numerous  or  conspicuous  bracts. 

Bractlet  (Bractcola),  or  Bracteole,  is  a  bract  seated  orathe  pedicel  or  flower-stalk,  73. 
Branch,  Branchiny,  27. 
Brealhimj-pores,  144. 

Bristles,  stiff,  sharp  hairs,  or  any  very  slender  bodies  of  similar  appearance. 
Bristly,  beset  with  bristles.     Bristle-pointed,  54. 
Brunneous,  brown. 
Brush-shaped,  see  aspergillijorm. 

Bryolofjy,  that  part  of  botany  which  relates  to  Mosses. 
Bryiiphyta,  Brynjjhytes,  163. 

Bud,  a  branch  in  its  earliest  or  undeveloped  state,  27.     Bud-scales,  63. 
Bulb,  a  leaf-bud  with  fleshy  scales,  usually  subterranean,  46. 
Bulbils,  diminutive  bulbs. 

Bulhiferuus,  bearing  or  producing  bulbs.    Bulbose  or  bulbous,  bulb-like  in  shape,  &o. 
Bulbk'ts,  small  bulbs,  borne  above  ground,  46. 
Bulb-scales,  46. 

Bullate,  appearing  as  if  blistered  or  bladdery  (from  bulla   a  bubble). 
Byssaceous,  composed  of  fine  flaxdike  threads. 


198  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Caducous,  dropping  ofT  very  early,  compared  with  other  parts;  as  the  calyx  in  the 

Poppy,  falling  when  the  tlower  opens. 
Cmruleous,  blue.     Ccerulescent,  becoming  bluish. 
Ciespitose,  or  Cespilose,  growing  in  turf-like  patches  or  tufts. 
Calathi/uriii,  cup-shaped. 

Calcarate,  furuislied  with  a  spur  (cnlcar),  86,  87. 

Calceolate  or  Calcei/orm,  slipi)er-shaped,  like  one  petal  of  the  Lady's  Slijjper. 
Callose,  hardened ;  or  furnished  with  callosities  or  thickened  spots. 
Calvous,  bald  or  naked  of  hairs. 

C'llyciflurus,  when  petals  and  stamens  are  adnate  to  calyx. 
t'dlycine,  belonging  to  the  calyx. 
Calyculate,  furnished  with  an  outer  accessory  calyx  (caly cuius)  or  set  of  bracts 

looking  like  a  calyx,  as  in  true  Pinks. 
Calyptra,  tlie  hood  or  veil  of  the  capsule  of  a  Moss,  163. 
Calyptrate,  having  a  calyptra. 

Calyptriform,  shaped  like  a  calyptra  or  candle-extinguisher. 
Calyx,  the  outer  set  of  the  floral  envelopes  or  leaves  of  the  flower,  14,  79. 
Cambium,  Cambium-layer,  140. 
Campanulale,  bell-shaped,  90. 
Campylotropous,  or  Campylotropal.  curved  ovules  and  seeds.  111.     Campylospermous, 

applied   to   fruits  of  Umbelliferse  when  the  seed   is   curved  in  at  the  edges, 

forming  a  groove  down  the  inner  face ;  as  in  Sweet  Cicely. 
Canaliculate,  channelled,  or  with  a  deep  longitudinal  groove. 
Cancellate,  latticed,  resembling  lattice-work. 
Cnndidus,  Latin  for  pure  white. 
Canescent,  grayish-white;  hoary,  iisually  because  the  surface  is  covered  with  fine 

white  hairs.     Incanous  is  whiter  still. 
Canous,  whitened  with  pubescence;  see  incanous. 

Capillaceous,  Capillary,  hair-like  in  shape;  as  fine  as  hair  or  slender  bristles. 
Capitate,  having  a  globular  apex,  like  the  head  on  a  pin. 
Capitellate,  diminutive  of  capitate. 

Capitulum,  a  close  rounded  dense  cluster  or  head  of  sessile  flo^vers,  74. 
Capreolate,  bearing  tendrils  (from  capreolus,  a  tendril). 
Capsule,  a  dry  dehiscent  seed-vessel  of  a  compound  pistil,  122. 
Capsular,  relating  to,  or  like  a  capsule. 
Capture  of  insects,  154. 

Carina,  a  keel ;  the  two  anterior  petals  of  a  papilionaceous  flower,  92. 
Carinate,  keeled,  furnished  with  a  sharp  ridge  or  projection  on  tlie  lower  side. 
Cariojjsis,  or  Caryopsis,  the  one-seeded  fruit  or  grain  of  Grasses,  121. 
Corneous,  flesh-colored;  pale  red.     Camose,  fleshy  in  texture. 
Carpel,  or  Carpidium,  a  simple  pistil  or  a  pistil-leaf,  106. 
Carpellary,  pertaining  to  a  carpel. 

Caipolo(/y,  that  department  of  botany  which  relates  to  fruits. 
Caipophure,  the  stalk  or  support  of  a  pistil  extending  between  its  carpels,  113. 
Carpos,  Greek  for  fruit. 

Cartilaginous,  or  Cartilagineous,  firm  and  tough  in  texture,  like  cartilage. 
Caruncle,  an  excrescence  at  the  scar  of  some  seeds,  120. 
Carunculate,  furnished  with  a  caruncle. 

Caryophyllaceous,  pink-like:  applied  to  a  corolla  of  5  long-clawed  petals. 
Cassideous,  helmet-shaped. 
Cassus,  empty  and  sterile. 

Catenate,  or  Catenulate,  end  to  end  as  in  a  chain. 
Catkin,  see  Ament,  75. 
Caudate,  tailed,  or  tail-pointed. 

Caudex,  a  sort  of  trunk,  such  as  that  of  Palms;  an  upright  rootstock,  39,  44. 
Caudicle,  the  stalk  of  a  pollen-mass,  &c. 
Caulescent,  having  an  obvious  stem,  36. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  199 

Caulicle,  a  little  stem,  or  rudimentary  stem  (of  a  seedling),  11,  127. 

Cauline,  of  or  belonging  to  a  stem,  36.     Qiulis,  Latin  name  of  stem. 

Caulocarpic,  equivalent  to  perennial. 

Caulume,  the  cauline  parts  of  a  plant. 

Cell  (diminutive,  Ctllult),  the  cavity  of  an  anther,  ovary,  &c.;  one  of  the  anatomi- 
cal elements,  131. 

Cellular  Cryptogams,  102.     Cellular  tissue,  131. 

Cellulose,  131.     Cell-walls,  130. 

Centrifugal  (inflorescen';e),  produced  or  expanding  in  succession  from  the  centre 
outwards,  77. 

Centripetal,  the  opposite  of  centrifugal,  74. 

Cephala,  Greek  for  head.  In  comiiounds,  Munnc^phalous,  with  one  head,  Micro- 
cephalous, small-headed,  &c. 

Cereal,  belonging  to  corn,  or  corn-plants. 

Cernuous,  nodding;  the  summit  more  or  less  inclining. 

ChiEta,  Greek  for  bristle. 

Chaff,  small  membranous  scales  or  bracts  on  the  receptacle  of  Compositae;  the 
glumes,  &c.,  of  grasses. 

Chaffy,  furnished  with  chaff,  or  of  the  texture  of  chaff. 

Chalaza,  that  part  of  the  ovule  where  all  the  parts  grow  together,  110,  126. 

Channelled,  hollowed  out  like  a  gutter;  same  as  canaliculate. 

Character,  a  phrase  expressing  the  essential  marks  of  a  species,  genus,  &c.,  181. 

Chartaceous,  of  the  texture  of  paper  or  parchment. 

Chloros,  Greek  for  green,  whence  Chloranthous,  green-flowered;  Chlorocarpous , 
green-fruited,  &c. 

Chluriiphyll,  leaf  green,  136. 

Chlorosis,  a  condition  in  which  naturally  colored  parts  turn  green. 

Churipetalous,  same  as  polypetalous. 

Chorisis,  separation  of  the  normally  united  parts,  or  where  two  or  more  parts  take 
the  place  of  one. 

Chromule,  coloring  matter  in  plants,  especially  when  not  green,  or  when  liquid. 

Chrysos,  Greek  for  golden  j'ellow,  whence  Chrysanthous,  yellow-flowered,  &c. 

Cicatrix,  the  scar  left  by  the  fall  of  a  leaf  or  other  organ. 

Ciliate,  beset  on  the  margin  with  a  fringe  of  cilia,  i.  e.  of  hairs  or  bristles,  like  the 
eyelashes  fringing  the  evelids,  whence  the  name. 

Cinereous,  or  Cineraceous,  ash-grayish;  of  the  color  of  ashes. 

Circinate,  rolled  inwards  from  the  top,  72. 

Circumscisnile ,  or  Circumcissile,  divided  by  a  circular  line  round  the  sides,  as  the 
pods  of  Purslane,  Plantain,  &c.,  124. 

Circumscription,  general  outline. 

Cirrhiferous,  or  Cirrhose,  furnished  with  a  tendril  (Latin,  Cirrhus) ;  as  the  Grape- 
vine. Cirrhose  also  means  resembling  or  coiling  like  tendrils,  as  the  leai- 
stalka  of  Virgin's-bower.     More  properly  Cirrus  and  Cirrose. 

Ciireous,  lemon-yellow. 

Clados,  Greek  for  branch.     Cladophylla,  64. 

Class,  178,  183. 

Classification,  175,  183. 

Clathrate,  latticed;  same  as  cancellate. 

Clavate,  club-shaped;  slender  below  and  thickened  upwards. 

Clavellate,  diminutive  of  clavate. 

Claviculate,  having  Claviculce,  or  little  tendrils  or  hooks. 

Claw,  the  narrow  or  stalk-like  base  of  some  petals,  as  of  Pinks,  9L 

Cleistogamous  (Cteistogamy),  fertilized  in  closed  bud,  115. 

Cle/t,  cut  into  lobes,  55. 

Close  fertilization,  115. 

Climbing,  rising  by  clinging  to  other  objects,  39,  151. 

Club-shaped,  see  clavate. 

Clustered,  leaves,  flowers,  &c.,  aggregated  or  collected  into  a  bunch. 


200  GLOSSAUY  AND   INDEX. 

Clypeate,  Ijiitkler-sliaped. 

Coadunnle,  same  as  connate,  i.  e.  united. 

Coalesctiit,  throwing  together.     Coalescence,  88. 

Cuarctate,  contracted  or  brought  close  togetlier. 

Coated,  having  an  integument,  or  covered  in  layers.     Coated  bulb,  46. 

Cobwebby,  same  as  arachnoid;  bearing  hairs  like  cobwebs  or  gossamer. 

Coccineous,  scarlet-red. 

Coccus  (plural  cocci),  anciently  aberrj';  now  mostly  used  to  denote  the  separable 

carpels  or  nutlets  of  a  dry  fruit. 
Cochleariform,  spoon-shaped. 
Cockleate,  coiled  or  shaped  like  a  snail-shell. 
Ccetospennous,  applied  to  those  fruits  of  Umbelliferae  which  have  the  seed  hollowed 

on  the  inner  face,  by  incurving  of  top  and  bottom;  as  in  Coriander. 
Coherent,  usually  the  same  as  connate. 

Cohort,  name  sometimes  used  for  groups  between  order  and  class,  178. 
Coleorhiza,  a  root-sheath. 
Collateral,  side  by  side. 
Collective  fruits,  118. 

Collum  or  Collar,  the  neck  or  junction  of  stem  and  root. 
Colored,  parts  of  a  plant  which  are  other-colored  than  green. 
Columella,  the  axis  to  which  the  carpels  of  a  compound  pistil  are  often  attached, 

as  in  Geranium  (112),  or  which  is  left  when  a  pud  opens,  as  in  Azalea. 
Column,  the  united  stamens,  as  in  Mallow,  or  the  stamens  and  pistils  united  into 

one  body,  as  in  the  Orchis  family. 
Columnar,  shaped  like  a  column  or  pillar. 
Coma,  a  tuft  of  any  sort  (literally,  a  head  of  hair),  125. 
Comose,  tufted;  bearing  a  tuft  of  hairs,  as  the  seeds  of  Milkweed,  126. 
Commissure,  the  line  of  junction  of  two  carpels,  as  in  the  fruit  of  Umbelliferae. 
Complanate,  flattened. 

Compound  led/,  b-i,  57.     Compound  pistil,  107.     Compound  umbel,  lb,  Si.c. 
Complete  (flower),  81. 
CiimpUcate,  folded  upon  itself. 
Compressed,  flattened  on  opposite  sides. 
Conctptacle,  168. 
Concinnous,  neat. 
Concolor,  all  of  one  color. 
Conchifurm,  shell-  or  half-shell-  shaped. 
Conduplicate,  folded  upon  itself  lengthwise,  71. 
Cone,  the  fruit  of  the  Pine  family,  124.     Coniferous,  cone-bearing. 
Confertus,  much  crowded. 

Conferruminate,  stuck  together,  as  the  cotyledons  in  a  horse-chestnut. 
Confluent,  blended  together;  or  the  same  as  coherent. 
Conformed,  similar  to  another  thing  it  is  associated  with  or  compared  to;  or  clo.?ely 

fitted  to  it,  as  the  skin  to  the  kernel  of  a  seed. 
Congested,  Conglomerate,  crowded  together. 
Conglomerate,  crowded  into  a  glomerule. 
Conjugate,  cow^AgA;  in  single  pairs.     Conjtigntion,  XIO. 
Connate,  united  or  grown  together  from  the  first  formation,  96. 
Connate-perfoliate,  when  a  pair  of  leaves  are  connate  round  a  stem,  60. 
Connective,  Connectivum,  the  part  of  the  anther  connecting  its  two  cells,  101. 
Connivent,  converging,  or  brought  close  together. 
Consolidation  (floral),  94. 
Consolidated  forms  of  vegetation,  47. 
Contents  of  cells,  136. 

Continuous,  the  reverse  of  interrupted  or  articulated. 
Contorted,  twisted  together.     Contorted  (estivation,  same  as  convolute,  97. 
Contortiij/licate,  twisted  bark  upon  itself. 
Contracted,  either  narmwed  or  shortened. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  201 

Contrary,  turned  in  opposite  direction  to  the  ordinary. 

Convolute,  rolled  up  lengthwise,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Plum  in  vernation,  72.     In 

astivation,  same  as  contorted,  97. 
Cordate,  heart-shaped,  53. 
Coriaceous,  resembling  leather  in  texture. 
Corky,  of  the  texture  (if  cork.     Coiky  layer  of  bark,  141. 
Corm,  a  solid  bulb,  like  that  of  Crocus,  45. 
Corneous,  of  the  consistence  or  appearance  of  horn. 
Corniculale,  furnished  with  a  small  horn  or  spur. 
Coinute,  horned;  bearing  a  horn-like  projection  or  a[)pendage. 
Corolla,  the  leaves  of  the  flower  within  the  calyx,  14,  79. 
Corollaceous,  Corolline,  like  or  belonging  to  a  coroUa. 

Corona,  a  coronet  or  crown;  an  appendage  at  the  top  of  the  claw  of  some  petals,  91. 
Coronate,  crowned;  furnished  with  a  crown. 
Cortex,  bark.     Cortical,  belonging  to  the  bark  (cortex). 
Corticate,  coated  with  bark  or  bark-like  covering. 
Corymb,  a  flat  or  convex  indeterminate  flower-cluster,  74. 
CorymbiJ'erous,  bearing  corymbs.    • 

Corymbose,  in  corymbs,  approaching  the  form  of  a  corymb,  or  branched  in  that  way. 
Costa,  a  rib;  the  midrib  of  a  leaf,  &c.     Costate,  ribbed. 
Cotyledons,  the  proper  leaves  of  the  embryo,  11,  127. 
Crateriform,  goblet-shaped  or  deep  saucer-shaped. 

Creeping  (stems),  growing  flat  on  or  beneath  the  ground  and  rooting,  39. 
Cremocarp,  a  half-fruit,  or  one  of  the  two  carpels  of  Uinbelliferaj,  121. 
Crenate,  or  Crenelled,  the  edge  scalloped  into  rounded  teeth,  55. 
Crenulate,  minutely  or  slightly  crenate. 

Crested,  or  Ciistate,  bearing  any  elevated  appendage  like  a  crest. 
Cretaceous,  ch.ilky  or  chalk-like. 

Cnbi-ose,  or  cribriform,  pierced  like  a  sieve  with  small  apertures. 
Crinite,  bearing  long  hairs. 
Crispate,  curled  or  crispy. 
Croceous,  saffron-color,  deep  reddish-yellow. 
Cross-breeds,  the  progeny  of  interbred  varieties,  176. 
Cross  fertilization,  115. 
Croton,  see  corona.     Crowned,  see  coronate. 
Cruciate,  or  Cruciform,  cross-shaped.     Cruciform  Corolla,  86. 
Crustaceous,  hard  and  brittle  in  texture;  crust-like. 
Cryptogamous  Plants,  Cryptogams,  10,  156. 
Cryptos,  concealed,  as  Cryptopetalous,  with  concealed  petals,  &c. 
Crystals  in  plants,  137. 
Cucullate,  hooded,  or  hood-shaped,  rolled  up  like  a  cornet  of  paper,  or  a  hood 

(cucullus),  as  the  spathe  of  Indian  Turnip,  75. 
Culm,  a  straw;  the  stem  of  Grasses  and  Sedges,  39. 
Cultrate,  shaped  like  a  trowel  or  broad  knife. 
Ctineate,  Cuneiform,  wedge  shaped,  53. 
Cup-shnped,  same  as  cyathiform  or  near  it. 
Cupiile,  a  little  cup;  the  cup  to  the  acorn  of  the  Oak,  122. 
Cupulnr,  or  Cupidate,  provided  with  a  cupula 
CupuKj'eroui,  cupule-bearing. 
Curviveined,  with  curved  ribs  or  veins. 
Curviserial,  in  oblique  or  spiral  ranks. 

Cushion,  the  enlargement  at  the  insertion  or  base  of  a  petiole. 
Cuspidate,  tipped  with  a  sharp  and  stiff  point  or  cusp,  54. 
Cut,  same  as  incised,  or  applied  generally  to  any  sharp  and  deep  division,  55. 
Cuticle,  the  skin  of  plant<=,  or  more  strictly  its  external  pellicle. 
Cyaneous,  bright  i)lue. 

Cyathiform,  in  the  shape  of  a  cup,  or  particularly  of  a  wine-glass. 
Cycle,  one  complete  turn  of  a  spire,  or  a  circle,  70. 


202  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Cydlcdl,  rolled  up  circularly,  or  coiled  into  a  compk'te  circle. 

Cijclosis,  circulation  in  closed  cells,  1-19. 

Cyliiidraceous,  approaching  to  the  Cylindrical  form,  terete  and  not  tapering. 

Cymbceform,  or  Cynibiform,  same  as  boat-shaped. 

Cyme,  a  cluster  (jf  cenrrifugal  inllorescence,  77. 

Cyniuse,  furnished  with  cymes,  or  like  a  cyme. 

Cymule,  a  partial  or  diminutive  cyme,  77. 

Deca-  (in  words  of  Greek  derivation),  ten ;  as 

Decayynoiis,  with  10  pistils  or  styles,   Ihcamtrous,  of  10  parts.  Decandrous,  with 

10  stamens,  (S:c. 
Deciduous,  falling  off,  or  subject  to  fall;  said  of  leaves  which  fall  in  autumn,  and 

of  a  calyx  and  corolla  which  fail  before  the  fruit  forms. 
Declinate,  declined,  turned  to  one  side,  or  downwards. 
Decompound,  several  times  compounded  or  divided,  5'J. 
Decumbent,  reclined  on  the  ground,  the  summit  tending  to  rise,  .39. 
Decurrenl  (leaves),  prolonged  on  the  stem  beneath  the  insertion,  as  in  Thistles. 
Decussate,  arranged  in  pairs  which  successively  cross  each  other,  71. 
Deduplication,  same  as  chorisis. 

Definite,  when  of  a  uniform  number,  and  not  above  twelve  or  so. 
Definite  Inflorescence,  72. 
Defiexed,  bent  downwards. 

Deflorate,  past  the  flowering  state,  as  an  anther  after  it  has  discharged  its  pollen. 
Dehiscence,  the  regular  splitting  open  of  capsule  or  anther,  103,  119. 
Dehiscent,  opening  by  regular  dehiscence,  119,  123. 
Deliquescent,  branching  off  so  that  the  stem  is  lost  in  the  branches,  32. 
Deltoid,  of  a  triangular  shape,  like  the  Greek  capital  a. 
Demersed,  growing  below  the  surface  of  water. 
Dendroid,  Dendritic,  tree-like  in  form  or  appearance. 
Dendron,  Greek  for  tree. 
Deni,  ten  together. 
Dens,  Latin  for  tooth. 

Dentate,  toothed,  55.     Denticulate,  furnished  with  denticulations,  or  little  teeth. 
Depauperate,  impoverished  or  starved,  and  so  below  the  natural  size. 
Depressed,  flattened  or  as  if  pressed  down  from  above. 
Derma,  Greek  for  skin. 

Descending,  tending  gradually  downwards.     Descending  axis,  the  root. 
Desmos,  Greek  for  things  connected  or  bound  together. 
Determinate  Inflorescence,  72. 
Dextrorse,  turned  to  the  right  hand. 
Di-  Dis  (in  Greek  compounds),  two,  as 

Diadelpkous  (stamens),  united  by  their  filaments  in  two  sets,  99. 
Diar/nosis,  a  short  distinguishing  character  or  descriptive  phrase. 
Dialypetidous,  same  as  polypetalous. 
Diandrous,  having  two  stamens,  &c. 
Diaphanous,  transparent  or  translucent. 
Dicarpellary,  of  two  carpels. 

Dichlamydeous  (flower),  having  both  calyx  and  corolla. 
Dichogamous.  Dichogamy,  116. 
Dichotomous,  two-forked. 

Diclinous,  having  the  stamens  in  one  flower,  the  pistils  in  another,  85- 
Dicoccous  (fruit),  splitting  into  two  cocci  or  closed  carpels. 
Dicotyls,  23. 
Dicotyledonous  (embryo),  having  a  pair  of  cotvledons,  23.    Dicotyledonous  Plants,  23, 

182. 
Didymous,  twin. 

Didynamous  (stamens),  having  four  stamens  in  two  pairs,  100. 
Diffuse,  spreading  widely  and  irregularly. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  203 

Dhjitnte  (fingered),  where  the  leaflets  of  a  compound  leaf  are  all  borne  on  the  apex 
of  the  petiole,  58. 

Digynous  (flower),  liaving  two  pistils  or  st^'les,  105. 

Dimerous,  made  up  of  two  parts,  or  its  organs  m  twos. 

Dimidiate,  halved;  as  where  a  leaf  or  leaflet  has  only  one  side  developed. 

Dimorphism,  117.     Dimorphous,  Dimorphic,  of  two  forms,  117. 

Diwcious,  or  Diuicous,  with  stamens  and  pistils  on  different  plants,  85. 

Dipetalous,  of  two  petals.     Diphyllous,  two-leaved.     Dipterous,  two-winged. 

Diplo-,  Greek  fur  double,  as  Diplostemonous,  with  two  sets  of  stamens. 

Disciform  or  Disk-shaped,  flat  and  circular,  like  a  disk  or  quoit. 

Discoidal,  or  Discoid,  belonging  to  vr  like  a  disk. 

Discolor,  of  two  different  colors  or  hues. 

Discrete,  separate,  opposite  of  concrete. 

Disepalous,  of  two  sepals. 

Disk,  the  face  of  any  flat  body;  the  central  part  of  a  head  of  flowers,  like  the  Sun- 
flower, or  Coreopsis,  as  opposed  to  the  ray  or  margin;  a  fleshy  expansion  of  the 
receptacle  of  a  flower,  11.3. 

Disk-Jlowers,  those  of  the  disk  in  Composita?. 

Dissected,  cut  deeply  into  many  lobes  or  divisions. 

Dissepiments,  the  partitions  of  a  compound  ovary  or  a  fruit,  108. 

Dissiiienl,  bursting  in  pieces. 

Distichous,  two-ranked. 

Distinct,  uncombined  with  each  other,  95. 

Dithf.cous,  of  two  thecae  or  anther-cells. 

Divaricate,  straddling;  very  widely  divergent. 

Divided  (leaves,  &c.),  cut  into  divisions  down  to  the  base  or  midrib,  55. 

Dodeca,  Greek  for  twelve ;  as  Dodecagynous,  with  twelve  pistils  or  styles,  Dode- 
candrous,  with  twelve  stamens. 

Dodrnns,  span-long. 

Dolabriform,  axe-shaped. 

Dorsal,  pertaining  to  the  back  (dorsum)  of  an  organ.     Dorsal  Suture,  106. 

Dotted  Ducts,  148. 

Double  Flowers,  where  the  petals  are  multiplied  unduly,  79. 

Downy,  clothed  with  a  coat  of  soft  and  short  hairs. 

Drupaceous,  like  or  pertaining  to  a  drupe. 

Drupe,  a  stone-fruit,  120.     Drupelet  or  Drupel,  a  little  drupe. 

Ducts,  the  so-called  vessels  of  plants,  134- 

Dumose,  bushy,  or  relating  to  bushes. 

Duramen,  the  heart-wood,  142. 

Dwarf,  remarkably  low  in  stature. 

E-,  as  a  prefix  of  Latin  compound  words,  means  destitute  of;  as  ecostate,  without  a 

rib  or  midrib;  exalbuminous,  without  albumen,  >S:c. 
Eared,  see  nuriculate,  53. 

Ebracteate,  destitute  of  bracts.     Ebracteolnte ,  destitute  of  bractlets. 
Eburneous,  ivory-white. 

Echinate,  armed  with  prickles  (like  a  hedgehog).     Echinulate,  a  diminutive  of  it. 
Edentate,  toothless. 

Effete,  past  bearing,  &c. ;  said  of  anthers  which  have  discharged  their  pollen. 
Effuse,  very  loosely  branched  and  spreading. 
Eglandulose,  destitute  of  glands. 

Elaters,  threads  mixed  with  the  spores  of  Liverworts,  165. 
Ellipsoidal,  approaching  an  elliptical  figure. 
Elliptical,  oval  or  oblong,  with  the  ends  regularly  rounded,  52. 
Emarginate,  notched  at  the  summit.  54. 
Embryo,  the  rudimentary  plantlet  in  a  seed.  11,  127. 
Embryonal,  belonging  or  relating  to  the  embryo. 
Embryo-sac,  117. 


204  GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX. 

Emersed,  raised  out  of  water. 

Endecayynvus,  with  eleven  pistils  or  styles.     Endccandrous,  with  eleven  stamens 

Endemic,  peculiar  to  the  country  gfeographically. 

Endocarj),  the  inner  layer  of  a  pericarp  or  fruit,  120. 

Endochruine,  the  coloring  matter  of  Algae  and  the  like. 

Enilogenous  Stems,  luS.     Endogenous  plants,  an  old  name  for  monocotyledons. 

Endopleuia,  inner  seed-coat. 

Endinhizul,  radicle  or  root  sheathed  in  germination. 

Endosperm,  the  albumen  if  a  seed,  21. 

Enlostome,  the  oriHce  in  the  inner  coat  of  an  ovule. 

Ennta-,  nine.    Ennenpyniius,  witli  nine  petals  orstyles.   Enneandrous,  nine-stamened 

Ensate,  Ensifovm,  sword-shajied. 

Entire,  the  margins  not  at  all  toothed,  notched,  or  divided,  but  even,  55. 

Entumophilous,  said  of  flowers  frequented  and  fertilized  by  insects,  11.3. 

Ephemeral,  lasting  for  a  day  or  less,  as  the  corolla  of  Purslane,  <&o. 

Epi-,  Greek  for  upon. 

Epicalyx,  such  an  involucel  as  that  of  Malvaceae. 

Epicarp,  the  outermost  layer  of  a  fruit,  120 

Epidermal,  relating  to  the  Epidermic,  or  skin  of  a  pliint,  50,  1-11,  143. 

Epir/ccdus,  growing  on  the  earth,  or  close  to  the  ground. 

Epigynous,  upon  the  ovary,  95,  99. 

Epipttidims,  borne  on  the  petals  or  the  corolla,  99. 

Epiphyllous,  borne  on  a  leaf. 

Epiphyte,  a  plant  growing  on  another  plant,  but  not  nourished  by  it,  36. 

Epiphytic  or  Epiphytal,  relating  to  Epiphytes. 

Epipterous,  winged  at  top. 

Episperm,  the  skin  or  coat  of  a  seed,  especially  the  outer  coat. 

Equal,  alike  in  number  or  length. 

Equally  pinnate,  same  as  abruptly  pinnate,  57. 

Equitunl  (riding  straddle),  60. 

Erii  n,  Greek  for  wool.    Erianthous,  woolly-flowered.  Eriophorous,  wool-bearing,  &c. 

Erase,  eroded,  as  if  gnawed. 

Erostrate,  not  beaked. 

Erythros,  Greek  for  red.     Erythrocarpous,  red-fruited,  &c. 

Essential  Organs  of  the  flower,  80. 

Estivation,  see  cestivatiun. 

Etiolated,  blanched  by  excluding  the  light,  as  the  stalks  of  Celery. 

Eu,  Greek  prefix,  meaning  very,  or  much. 

Evergreen,  holding  the  leaves  over  winter  and  until  new  ones  appear,  or  longer. 

Ex,  Latin  prefix;  privative  in  place  of  ''e"  when  next  letter  is  a  vowel.     So  Ex- 

alate,  wingless;   Exalbuminous  (seed),  without  albumen,  21. 
Excurrent,  running  out,  as  when  a  midrib  projects  beyond  the  apex  of  a  leaf,  or  a 

trunk  is  continued  to  the  very  top  of  a  tree,  32. 
Exiguous,  puny. 
Exilis,  lank  or  meagre. 
Eximius,  distinguished  for  size  or  beauty. 
Exo-,  in  Greek  compounds,  outward,  as  in 
Exocarp,  outer  layer  of  a  pericarp,  120. 
Exogenous,  outward  growing.     Exogeno7is  stems,  139. 
Exorhizal,  radicle  in  germination  not  sheathed. 
Exastome,  the  orifice  in  the  outer  coat  of  the  ovule. 
Explan'ite,  spread  or  flattened  out. 

Exserted,  protruding  out  of,  as  the  stamens  out  of  the  corolla. 
Exstipuldte,  destitute  of  stipules. 
Extine,  outer  coat  of  a  pollen-grain. 

Extra -axillary,  said  of  a  branch  or  bud  somewhat  out  of  the  axil,  31. 
Extrorse,  turned  outwards;  the  anther  is  extrorse  when  fastened  to  the  filament  00 

the  side  next  the  pistil,  and  opening  on  the  outer  side,  101. 


GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX.  205 

Falcate,  scythe-shaped;  a  flat  body  curved,  its  edges  parallel. 

False  Maccmcs,  78. 

Family,  in  Ixitaiiy  same  as  Order,  177. 

Farina,  meal  or  starchy  matter,  i;j(i. 

Farinaceous,  mealy  in  texture.     Farinose,  covered  with  a  mealy  powder. 

Fasciate,  banded;  also  applied  to  monstrous  steins  which  grow  flat. 

Fascicle,  a  close  cluster,  77. 

Fascicled,  Fasciculated,  growing  in  a  bundle  or  tuft,  as  the  leaves  of  Larch,  68,  and 
roots  of  Peony,  .'55. 

Fasti(jiate,  close,  parallel,  and  upright,  as  the  branches  of  Lombardy  Poplar. 

Faux  (\A\\Ya.\,  fiiuccs),  the  throat  of  a  calyx,  corolla,  &c.,  89. 

Faveolate,  Favose,  honeycombed;  same  as  fi/cco/^f^c. 

Feather-veined,  with  veins  of  a  leaf  all  springing  from  tiie  sides  of  a  midrib,  51. 

Fecula  or  Fmcula,  starch,  1-36. 

Female  flower  or  plant,  one  bearing  pistils  only. 

Fenestrate,  pierced  with  one  or  more  large  lioles,  like  windows. 

Ferrugineuus,  or  Ferruginous,  resembling  iron-rust;  red-grayish. 

Fertile,  fruit-bearing,  or  capable  of  it ;  also  said  of  anthers  producing  good  pollen. 

Fertilization,  the  process  by  which  pollen  causes  the  embryo  to  be  formed,  114. 

Fibre  (woody),  133.     Fibrous,  containing  much  fibre,  or  composed  of  fibres. 

Fibrillose,  formed  of  small  fibres,  or  Fibrillce. 

Fibro-vnscular  bundle  or  tissue,  formed  of  fibres  and  vessels. 

Fiddle-shaped,  obovate  with  a  deep  recess  on  each  side. 

Fidus,  Latin  suflix  for  cleft,  as  Bifld,  two-cleft. 

Filament,  the.  stalk  of  a  stamen,  14,  80,  101 ;  also  any  slender  thread-shaped  body. 

Filamentose,  or  Filamentous,  bearing  or  formed  of  slender  threads. 

Filiform,  thread-shaped;  long,  slender,  and  cylindrical. 

Fimbriate,  fringed;  furnished  with  fringes  {fimbria). 

Fimbi-illate,  Fimbrilliferous,  bearing  small  fimbr'ite,  i.  e.fimbrillcB. 

Fissiparous,  multiplying  by  division  of  one  body  into  two. 

Fissus,  Latin  for  split  or  divided. 

Fistular,  or  Fistuiose,  hollow  and  cylindrical,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Onion. 

Flabelliform,  or  Flabellate,  fan-shaped. 

Flagellate,  or  Flagelliform,  lon<r,  narrow,  and  flexible,  like  the  thong  of  a  whip;  or 
like  the  runners  (flagellce)  of  the  Strawberry. 

Flavescent,  j'ellowish,  or  turning  yellow. 

Flavus,  Latin  for  3'ellow. 

Fleshy,  composed  of  firm  pulp  or  flesh. 

Flexuose,  or  Flexuous,  bending  in  opposite  directions,  in  a  zigzag  way. 
floating,  swimming  on  the  surface  of  water. 

Floccose,  composed  of  or  bearing  tufts  of  woolly  or  long  and  soft  hairs. 

Plora  (the  goddess  of  flowers),  the  plants  of  a  country  or  district,  taken  together,  or 
a  work  systematically  describing  them,  9. 

Floral  Envelopes,  or  Flower-leairs,  79. 

Floret,  a  diminutive  flower,  one  of  a  mass  or  cluster. 

Floribund,  abundantly  floriferous. 

Florula,  the  flora  of  a  small  district. 

Flos,  floris,  Latin  for  flower. 

Flosculus,  diminutive,  same  as  floret. 

Flower,  the  whole  organs  of  reproduction  of  Phsenogamous  plants,  14,  72. 

Flower-bud,  an  unopened  flower. 

Flowering  Plants,  10,  156.     Flowerless  Plants,  10,  156. 

Fly-trap  leaves,  65. 

Fluitans,  Latin  for  floating.     Fluviatile,  belonging  to  a  river  or  stream. 

Foliaceous,  belonging  to,  or  of  the  texture  or  nature  of,  a  lea.1'  (folium). 

Foliate,  provided  with  leaves.     Latin  prefixes  denote  the  number  of  leaves,  as  bifo- 
liate, trifoliate,  &r.    Foliose,  leaf}-;  aboimding  in  leaves. 

Foliolate,  relating  to  or  bearing  leaflets  (foliola) ;  trifoliate,  with  three  leaflets,  &;c. 


^OG  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Folium  (plural, /"?K(),  Latin  for  leaf. 

Follicle,  a  simple  pod,  opeiiiiif;  down  the  inner  suture,  122. 

Follicular,  resembling  or  belonging  to  a  follicle. 

Food  of  Plants,  144. 

Footstalk,  either  petiole  or  peduncle,  49. 

Foramen,  a  hole  or  orifice,  as  that  of  the  ovule,  110. 

Foraminose,  Foraminulose,  pierced  with  holes. 

Forked,  branched  in  two  or  three  or  more. 

Fo7-nicate,  bearing  fornices. 

Fornix,  little  arched  scales  in  the  throat  of  some  corollas,  as  of  Comfrey. 

Foveate,  deeply  pitted.     Foveolaie,  diminutive  oi  foveate. 

Free,  not  united  with  any  other  parts  of  a  different  sort,  95. 

Fringed,  the  margin  beset  with  slender  appendages,  bristles,  <S:c. 

Frond,  what  answers  to  leaves  in  Ferns,  &c.,  157;  or  to  the  stem  and  /eaves  fused. 

into  one,  as  in  Liverwort. 
Frondescence,  the  bursting  into  leaf. 

Frondose,  frond-bearing;  like  a  frond,  or  sometimes  used  for  leafy. 
Fructijication,  the  state  or  result  of  fruiting. 
Fructus,  Latin  for  fruit. 

Fruit,  the  matured  ovary  and  all  it  contains  or  is  connected  with,  117. 
Fniit-dots  in  Ferns;  see  Sorus. 

Frustulose,  consisting  of  a  chain  of  similar  pieces,  or  Frustules. 
Frutescent,  somewhat  shrubb\';  becoming  a  shrub  (Frutex),  39. 
Fruticulose,  like  a  small  shrub,  or  F ruticulus.     Fruticose,  shrubby,  39. 
Fugacious,  soon  fallinjr  off  or  perishing. 
Fulcrate,  having  accessory  organs  or  fulcra,  i.  e.  props. 
Fulvous,  tawn\-;  dull  yellow  with  gray. 
Fungus,  Fungi,  172. 

Funicle,  Funiculus,  the  stalk  of  a  seed  or  ovule,  110. 
FunnelJ'orm,  or  funneUshnped,  expanding  gradually  upwards  into  an  open  mouth, 

like  a  funnel  or  tunnel,  90. 
Furcate,  forked. 

Furfuraceous,  covered  with  bran-like  fine  scurf. 
Furrowed,  marked  by  longitudinal  channels  or  grooves. 
Fuscous,  deep  gray-brown. 
Fusiform,  spindle-shaped,  36. 

Galbalus,  the  fleshy  or  at  length  woody  cone  of  .Juniper  and  Cypress. 

Galea,  a  helmet-shaped  bod}-,  as  the  upper  sepal  of  the  Monkshood,  87. 

Galeate,  shaped  like  a  helmet. 

Gamnpetalous,  of  united  petals,  89. 

Gamophyllous,  formed  of  united  leaves.     Gamosepalous,  formed  of  united  sepals,  89. 

Geminate,  twin;  in  pairs. 

Gemma,  Latin  for  a  bud. 

Gemmation,  the  state  of  budding;  budding  growth. 

Gemmule,  a  small  bud;  the  plumule,  C. 

Genera,  plural  of  genus. 

Geniculate,  bent  abruptly,  like  a  knee  (genu),  as  manj'  stems. 

Generic  Names,  179. 

Genus,  a  kind  of  a  rank  above  species,  177. 

Germ,  a  growing  point;  a  young  bud;  sometimes  the  same  as  embryo,  127. 

Germen,  the  old  name  for  ovar}'. 

Germination,  tiie  development  of  a  plantlet  from  the  seed,  12- 

Geron'ogwous,  inhabiting  the  Old  World. 

Gibbous,  more  tumid  at  one  place  or  on  one  side  than  the  other. 

Gilvous,  dirty  reddish-yellow. 

Ghibrate,  l)ecoming  glalirous  with  age,  or  almost  glabrous. 

Glabrous,  smooth,  in  the  sense  of  having  no  hairs,  bristles,  or  other  pubescence. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  207 

Gladiate,  sword-shaped,  as  the  leave?  oi  Iris. 

Glands,  small  cellular  organs  wliicli  secrete  oily  or  aromatic  or  other  products;  tlie^- 
are  sometimes  sunk  in  the  leaves  oi  rind,  as  in  the  Orange,  Prickly  Ash,  &c. ; 
sometimes  on  the  surface  as  small  projections;  sometimes  raised  on  hairs  or 
bristles  {(jlandular  hairs,  tfc),  as  in  the  Svveetbrier  and  Sundew.     The  name  is 
also  given  to  any  small  swellings,  &c.,  whethei  they  secrete  anything  or  not;  so 
that  the  word  is  looselj'  used. 
Glandular,  Glandulose,  furnished  with  glands,  or  gland-like. 
Glans  (Gland),  the  acorn  or  mast  of  Oak  and  similar  fruits. 
Glareose,  growing  in  gravel. 
Glaucescent,  slightly  glaucous,  or  bluish-gray. 
Glaucous,  covered  with  a  bloom,  viz.  with  a  fine  wiiile  powder  of  wax  that  rubs  off, 

like  that  on  a  fresh  plum,  or  a  cabbage-leaf. 
Globose,  spherical  in  form,  or  nearly  so.     Globular,  nenil y  globose. 
Glochidiate,  or  Glochideous,  (bristles)  barbed;  tipped  with  barbs,  or  with  a  double 

hooked  point. 
Glomerate,  closely  aggregated  into  a  dense  cluster. 
Glomerule,  a  dense  head-like  cluster,  77. 

Glossology,  the  department  of  botany  in  which  technical  terms  are  explained. 
Glumaceous,  glume-like,  or  glume-bearing. 
Glume  ;  Glumes  are  the  husks  or  floral  coverings  of  Grasses,  or,  particularly,  the 

outer  husks  or  bracts  of  each  spikelet. 
Glumelles,  the  inner  husks  of  Grasses. 
Gonoplurre,  a  stipe  below  stamens,  113. 
Gossypine,  cottony,  flocculent. 
Gracilis,  Latin  for  slender. 

Grain,  see  Caryopsis,  121. 

Gramineous,  grass-like. 

Granular,  composed  of  grains.     Granule,  a  small  grain. 

Graveolent,  heavy-scented. 

Griseous,  gray  or  bluish-graj'. 

Growth,  129. 

Grumous,  or  Grumose,  formed  of  coarse  clustered  grains. 

Guttate,  spotted,  as  if  by  drops  of  so.nething  colored. 

Gymnos,  Greek  for  naked,  as 

Gymnocarp(yus,  naked-fruited.      Gymnospermous,  naked-seeded,  109. 

Gymnospermous  f/yncecium,  109. 

GymnospernuB,  or  Gymnospermous  Plants,  183. 

Gynandrous,  with  stamens  borne  on,  i.e.  united  with,  the  pistil,  99. 

Gynaecium,  a  name  for  the  pistils  of  a  flower  taken  altogether,  105. 

Gynobase,  a  depressed  receptacle  or  support  of  the  pistil  or  carpi  Is,  114. 

Gynophore,  a  stalk  raising  a  |)istil  above  the  stamens,  113. 

Gynostegium,  a  sheath  around  pistils,  of  whatever  nature. 

Gynostemium,  name  of  the  column  in  Orchids,  &c.,  consisting  of  style  and  stigma 
with  stamens  combined. 

Gyrate,  coiled  or  moving  circularly. 

Gyrose,  stronglj'  bent  to  and  fro. 

Habit,  the  general  aspect  of  a  plant,  or  its  mode  of  growth. 
Habitat,  the  situation  or  country  in  which  a  plant  grows  in  a  wild  state. 
Hairs,  hair-like  growths  on  the  surface  of  plants. 
Hairy,  beset  with  hairs,  especially  longish  ones. 
Halberd-shaped,  see  hastate,  53. 

Halved,  when  appearing  as  if  one  half  of  the  body  were  cut  away. 
Hamate,  or  Hamose,  hooked;  the  end  of  a  slender  body  bent  round. 
Hamulose,  bearing  a  small  hook;  a  diminutive  of  the  last. 

Haplo-,  in  Greek  compounds,  single;  as  Haplostemonous,  having  only  one  series  of 
stamens. 


208  GLOSSARY  AND  INUEX, 

Hastate,  or  Hastile,  shaped  like  a  lialberd;  furnished  with  a  spreading  lobe  on  each 

side  at  tlie  base,  53. 
Head,  capitulum,  a  form  of  inflorescence.  74. 
Henrt-shapcd,  of  the  shape  of  a  heart  as  painted  on  cards,  53. 
Heart-wood,  the  older  or  matured  wood  of  exogenous  trees,  142. 
Helicoid,  coiled  like  a  helix  or  snail-shell,  77. 
Helmet,  tlie  upper  sepal  of  Monkshood  is  so  called. 
Helvolotis,  grayish-yellow. 

Heini-  in  compounds  from  the  Greek,  half;  e.  g.  Hemispherical,  &c. 
Hemicarp,  half-fruit,  one  carpel  of  an  Umbelliferous  plant,  121. 
Heriitropous  (ovule  or  seed),  nearly  same  as  amphitrupous,  123. 
Hepta-  {in  words  of  Greek  origin),  seven;  as  Heptagynuus,  with  seven  pistils  or 

styles.    Heptumerouf,  \is  parts  in  sevens.    i/«-/)tant/»"0«s,  having  seven  stamens. 
Herb,  plant  not  woody,  at  least  above  ground. 
Herbaceous,  of  the  texture  of  an  herb;  not  woody.  39. 
Herbarium,  the  botanist's  arranged  collection  of  dried  plants,  186. 
Herborizatii'Ti.  184. 

HermaphriK/ite  (flower),  having  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  blossom,  81. 
Hesperidium,  orange-fruit,  a  hard-rinded  berr}'. 
Hetero-,  in  Greek  compounds,  means  of  two  or  more  sorts,  as 
Heterocarpous,  bearing  fruit  of  two  kinds  or  shapes. 
Heterogamous,  bearing  two  or  more  sorts  of  flowers  in  one  cluster. 
Heterogony ,  Heterogove,  or  Heterogenous,  with  stamens  and  pistil  reciprocally  of 

two  sorts,  116.     Heterostyled  is  same. 
Heteromorphous,  of  two  or  more  shapes. 
Heterophyllous,  with  two  sorts  of  leaves. 
Heterotropous  (ovule),  the  same  as  amphitropovs,  123. 
Hexn-  (in  Greek  compounds),  six;  as  Hexagonal,  six-angled.     Hexagynous,  with 

six  pistils  or  styles.     Hexamerous,  its  parts  in  sixes.     Hexandrous,  with  six 

stamens.     Hexapterous,  six-winged. 
Hibernaculum,  a  winter  bud. 
Hiemal,  relating  to  winter. 
Hilar,  belonging  to  the  hilum. 

Hilum,  the  scar  of  the  seed ;  its  place  of  attachment,  110,  126. 
Hippocrepiform,  horseshoe-shaped. 
Hirsute,  clothed  with  stiflish  or  beard-like  hairs. 
Hirtellous,  minutely  hirsute. 

Hispid,  bristly,  beset  with  stiff  hairs.     Hispidulous,  diminutive  of  hispid. 
Histology,  9. 

Hoary,  grayish-white ;  see  canescent,  &c. 
Holosericeous,  all  over  sericeous  or  silky. 
Homo-,  in  Greek  compounds,  ail  alike  or  of  one  sort. 
Homodromous,  running  in  one  direction. 
Homogamous,  a  head  or  cluster  with  flowers  all  of  one  kind. 
Homogeneous,  uniform  in  nature;  all  of  one  kind. 
Homogone,  or  Homogonous,  counterpart  of  Heterogone  or  Homostyled. 
Homologous,  of  same  tj-pe;  thus  petals  and  sepals  are  the  homologues  of  leaves. 
Homomallous  (leaves,  &c.),  originating  all  round  an  axis,  but  all  bent  or  curved 

to  one  side. 
Homorphous,  all  of  one  shape. 

Hwnotropous  (embryo),  curved  with  the  seed;  curved  only  one  way. 
Hood,  same  as  helmet  or  galea.     Hooded,  hood-shaped;  see  cucullate. 
Hooked,  same  as  hamate. 

Horn,  a  spur  or  some  similar  appendage.     Horny,  of  the  texture  of  horn. 
Hortensis,  pertaining  to  the  garden. 

Hortus  Siccus,  an  herbarium,  or  collection  of  dried  plants,  201. 
Humifuse,  Humistrate,  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Humilis,  low  in  stature. 


GLOSSARY   AXD    IxMDEX.  209 

fTynline,  transparent,  or  partly  so. 

Hybrid,  a  cross-breed  between  two  allied  species,  176. 

Ihjilniphtjtes,  water-plauts. 

JJyemal,  see  liiemal. 

Ihjmtnium  of  a  Mushroom,  172. 

/Jiipantkium,  a  hollow  fJower-receptacle,  such  as  that  of  Rose. 

Hypo-,  Greek  prefix  for  under,  or  underneath. 

Ifypocotyle,  or  flypvcolyl,  part  of  stem  below  the  cotvledons,  11, 

Ilynocrdtenform,  properly  IlypocraUriinorphous,  salver-shaped. 

Ilypogcean,  or  Hypogceons,  produced  under  ground,  I'J. 

H jipoyynous,  inserted  under  the  pistil,  05,  'J'J. 

IJ ysttrnnthuus,  with  the  blossoms  developed  earlier  than  the  leaves. 

Icosamlrous,  having  20  (or  12  or  mo  e)  stamens  inserted  on  the  calyx. 

Imbevbif.  Latin  for  beardless. 

Imbricate,  Imbricated,  Jmbricntive,  overlapping  one  another,  like  tiles  or  shincrles 

on  a  roof,  as  the  bud-scales  of  Horse-chestnut  and  Hickory,  27.     In  testivation, 

where  some  leaves  of  the  calyx  or  corolla  are  overlapped  on   both  sides    by 

others,  98. 
Immart/iwite,  destitute  of  a  rim  or  border. 
Immersed,  growing  wholly  under  water. 
Impari-pinnnte,  pinnate  with  a  single  leaflet  at  the  apex,  57. 
I inpe rf'cct  flowers,  wanting  either  stamens  or  pi>tils.  8-5. 
Imequilateral,  unequal-sided,  as  the  leaf  of  a  Begonia. 
Inane,  empty,  said  of  an  anther  v,hich  produces  no  p.illen,  &c. 
IiKtppendiculate,  not  appeiidaged. 

Incaniius,  Incanesctnt,  hoary  with  soft  white  pubescence. 
Incarnate,  flesh-colored. 

Incised,  cut  rather  deeply  and  irregularly,  58. 

Included,  enclosed;  when  the  part  in  question  does  not  project  beyond  another. 
Incomplete  Flower,  wanting  calyx  or  corolla,  86. 
Incrns.<ated,  thickened. 

Incubuu-,  with  tip  of  one  leaf  lying  flat  over  the  base  of  the  next  above. 
Incumbent,  leaning  or  resting  upon;  the  cotyledons  are  incumbent  when  the  back  of 

one  of  them  lies  against  the  radicle,   128;    the  anthers  are  incumbent  when 

turned  or  looking  inwards. 
Incurved,  gradually  curving  inwards. 

Indefinite,  not  uniform  in  number,  or  too  numerous  to  mention  (over  12). 
Indefinite  or  Indeterminate  Inflorescence,  72. 
Indehiscent,  not  splitting  open;  i.  e.  not  dehiscent,  119. 
Indigenous,  native  to  the  country. 
Individ uals,  ]75. 

Indumentum,  any  liairy  coating  or  pubescence. 
Jnduplicate,  with  the  edges  turned  inwards,  97. 
Induviate,  clothed  with  old  and  withered  parts  or  induvice. 
Indusium,  the  shield  or  covering  of  a  fruit-dot  of  a  Fern,  159. 
Inermis,  Latin  for  unarmed,  not  prickly. 
Inferior,  growing  below  some  other  organ,  96. 
Infertile,  not  producing  seed,  or  pollen,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Inflated,  turgid  and  bladdery. 
Inflexed,  bent  inwards. 

Inflorescence,  the  arrangement  of  flowers  on  th'^  stem,  72. 
Infra-axillnry.  situated  beneath  the  axil. 
InfundibuUfnrm  or  Ivfundibulor,  funnel-shaped,  90. 

Innate  (anther),  attached  by  its  base  to  the  very  apex  of  the  filament,  101. 
Innovation,  a  young  shoot,  or  new  growth. 

Insertion,  the  place  or  the  mode  of  attachment  of  an  orsan  to  its  support,  95,  99o 
Integer,  entire,  not  lobed.     Inteyerrimus,  quite  entire,  not  serrate. 

14 


210  GLOSSARY  AND   IXDEX. 

Inlercdlular  Passnr/es  or  Sp'rces,  1.31,  143. 

Interfulidctvusi,  between  tlie  leaves  of  a  pair  or  whorl. 

Internoik,  the  part  of  a  stem  between  two  node^;,  i'i. 

/aterpttiular,  between  petioles. 

Interiiiptedly  pinnate,  pinnate  with  small  leaflets  intermixed  with  larger. 

/lUine,  inner  coat  of  a  pollen  grain. 

/ntrnjoliactuus  (stipules,  &C.).  placed  between  the  leaf  or  petiole  and  the  stem. 

/lUrorse,  turned  or  facinjj  inwards;  i.  e.  towards  the  axis  of  the  flower,  101. 

Jiitruse,  as  it  were  pushed  inwards. 

liictrstd  or  Inverted,  where  the  apex  is  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  organ 
it  is  compared  with. 

Involucel,  a  partial  or  small  involucre,  76. 

Invijlucellate,  furnished  with  an  involucel.    Involucmte,  furnished  with  an  involucre. 

Invilucre,  a  whorl  or  set  of  bracts  around  a  flower  umbel,  or  head,  &c.,  7i,  75. 

Incolute,  in  vernation,  72;  rolled  inwards  from  the  edges,  97. 

Ii-reyular  t towers,  86.  91. 

Isos,  Greek  for  equal  in  number.  Isomenni.t,  the  same  number  in  the  successive  cir- 
cles or  sets.    Jsustemoiwus,  the  stamens  eiiual  in  number  to  the  sepals  or  petals. 

Jointed,  separate  or  separable  at  one  or  more  places  into  pieces,  64,  &c. 

Juyuin  (plural  Juijn),  Latin  for  a  pair,  as  of  leaflets.  — thus  Unijuya'e,  of  a  single 

pair;  Bijayate,  of  two  pairs,  tkc. 
JuUiceus,  like  a  catkin  or  Julus. 

Keel,  a  projecting  ridge  on  a  surface,  like  the  keel  of  a  boat ;  the  two  auterioi 

petals  of  a  papilionaceous  corolla   92. 
Keeled,  furnished  with  a  keel  or  sharp  longitudinal  ridge. 
Kermesine,  Carmine-red. 
Kernel  of  the  ovule  and  seed,  110. 
Key,  or  Key-fruit,  a  Samara,  122. 
Kidney-shaped,  resembling  the  outline  of  a  kidney,  53. 

Lahellum,  the  odd  petal  in  the  Orchis  Family. 

Labiate,  same  as  bilnbiate  or  two-lipped,  92. 

Lnbidtijiorotis,  having  flowers  with  bilabiate  corolla. 

Labium  (plural.  Labia),  Latin  for  lip. 

Lacerate,  with  margin  appearing  as  if  torn. 

Laciniate,  slashed:  cut  into  deep  narrow  lobes  or  LncinicB. 

Lactescent,  producing  milky  juice,  as  does  the  Milkweed,  &c. 

Lacteus,  Latin  for  milk-white. 

Lacunose,  full  of  holes  or  gaps. 

Lacustrine,  belonging  to  lakes. 

Lceviyate,  smooth  as  if  polished.     Latin,  Lmris,  smooth,  as  opposed  to  rough. 

Lageniform,  gourd-shaped. 

Layopnus,  Latin,  hare-footed  ;  densely  clothed  with  long  soft  hairs. 

Lamellar  or  Lamellate,  consisting  <if  flat  plates,  Laniellce. 

Lamina,  a  plate  or  blade,  the  blade  of  ^  leaf,  &c..  49. 

Lanate,  Lanvse,  woolly;  clothed  with  long  and  soft  entangled  hairs. 

Lanceolate,  lance-shaped,  52. 

Lanuginous,  cottony  or  woolly. 

Latent  buds,  concealed  or  undeveloped  buds,  30. 

Lateral,  beIongin£r  to  the  side. 

Lnfer.  the  milky  juice,  &c.,  of  plants,  1.35. 

La.r  (Lotus),  lonep  in  texture,  or  sparse:  the  opposite  of  crowded. 

Leaf,  49.     Lenf-buds  .SI 

Leaflet,  one  of  the  divisions  or  blndes  of  a  compound  leaf,  57. 

Leaf-like,  same  us, foJiaceovs 

Leatheiy.  of  about  the  consistence  of  leather;  coriaceous. 


GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX.  211 

Legume,  a  simple  pod  which  dehisces  in  two  pieces,  like  that  of  the  Pea,  122. 

Legumiiwus,  beloii{:jiiig  to  legumes,  or  to  the  Leguminous  Family. 

Lenticular,  lens-shaped;  i.  e.  tlattish  and  convex  on  both  sides. 

Lippaceuus,  bur-like. 

Lasio,  Greek  for  woolly  or  hairy,  as  Lasianthus,  woolly-flowered. 

Lateritious,  brick-colored. 

Laticiferous,  containing  latex,  l'^8. 

Latus,  Latin  for  broad,  as  LatlJ'olius,  broad-leaved. 

Leaf-scar,  Leaf  stalk,  petiole. 

Lcnticels,  lenticular  dots  on  young  bark. 

Lentiginose,  as  if  freckled. 

Lepal,  a  made-up  word  for  a  sfaminode. 

Lepis,  Greek  for  a  scale,  whence  Lepidote,  leprous;  covered  with  scurfy  scales. 

Leptos,  Greek  for  slender;  so  Leptophyllous,  slender-leaved. 

Leukos,  Greek  for  white;  whence  Leucnnlhous,  white-flowered,  &c. 

Liber,  the  inner  bark  of  Exogenous  stems,  140. 

Lid,  see  operculum. 

Ligneous,  or  Lignose,  woody  in  texture. 

Ligulate,  furnished  with  a  ligule,  93. 

Ligule,  Ligula,  the  strap-shaped  corolla  in  many  Compositje,  93;  the  membranous 
app)endage  at  the  summit  of  the  leaf-sheaths  of  most  Grasses,  57. 

Limb,  the  border  of  a  corolla,  ttc,  89. 

Limbate,  bordered  (Latin,  Limbus.  a  border). 

Line,  the  twelfth  of  an  inch ;  or  French  lines,  the  tenth. 

Linear,  narrow  and  flat,  the  margins  parallel,  .52. 

Lineate,  marked  with  parallel  lines.     Lineolate,  marked  with  minute  lines. 

Lingulate,  Linguiform,  tongue-shaped. 

Lip,  the  principal  lobes  of  a  bilabiate  corolla  or  calyx,  92. 

Literal  or  Littoral,  belonging  to  the  shore. 

Livid,  pale  lead-colored. 

Lobe,  SLny  projection  or  division  (especially  a  rounded  one)  of  a  leaf,  &c. 

Lobed  or  Lobate,  cut  into  lobes,  55,  56;  Lobulate,  into  small  lobes. 

Locellate,  having  Locelli,  i.  e.  compartments  in  a  cell:  thus  an  anther-cell  is  often 
bilocellate. 

Loculament,  same  as  loculus. 

Locular,  relating  to  the  cell  or  compartment  {Loculus)  of  an  ovar}',  &c. 

Loculicidal  (dehiscence),  splitting  down  through  the  back  of  each  cell,  123. 

Locusta,  a  name  for  the  spikelet  of  Grasses. 

Lodicule,  one  of  the  scales  answering  to  perianth-leaves  in  Grass-flowers. 

Lament,  a  pod  which  separates  transversely  into  joints,  122. 

Lomentaceous,  pertaining  to  or  resembling  a  loment. 

Lorate,  thong-shaped. 

Lunate,  crescent-shaped.     Lunulate,  diminutive  of  lunate. 

Lupuline,  like  hops. 

Lusus,  Latin  for  a  sport  or  abnormal  variation. 

Luteolus,  yellowish;  diminutive  of 

Luteus,  Latin  for  yellow.    Lutescent,  verging  to  yellow. 

Lyrate,  lyre-shaped;  a  pinnatifid  leaf  of  an  obovate  or  spatulate  outline,  the  end- 
lobe  large  and  roundish,  and  the  lower  lobes  small,  as  in  tig.  149. 

Macros,  Greek  for  long,  sometimes  also  used  for  large:  thus  MacrophyUous,  long. 

or  large-leaved,  &c. 
Macrospore,  the  large  kind  of  spore,  when  there  are  two  kinds,  160,  161, 
Maculate,  spotted  or  blotched. 

Male  (flowers  or  plants),  having  stamens  but  no  pistU. 
Mammose,  breast-shaped. 
Marcescent,  withering  without  falling  off. 
Marginal,  belonging  to  margin. 


212  GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX. 

Marginate,  margined  with  an  edge  different  from  the  rest. 

Marginiddal  dehiscence,  123. 

Mnritinif,  belonging  to  sea-coasts. 

Marmurate,  marbled. 

Mas.,  Masc,  Masculine,  male. 

Masked,  see  personate. 

Mealy,  see  J'arinaceous. 

Median,  Medial,  belonging  to  the  middle. 

Medifixed,  attached  b3'  the  middle. 

Medullary,  belonging  to,  or  of  the  nature  of,  pith  (Medulla)',  pithy. 

Medullary  Rays,  the  silver-grain  of  wood,  140,  141. 

Medullary  Sheath,  a  set  of  ducts  just  around  the  pith,  140. 

Meiiistevionous,  having  fewer  stamens  than  petals. 

Membranaceous  or  Membranous,  of  the  texture  of  membrane;  thin  and  soft. 

Meniscoid,  crescent-shaped. 

Mei-icarp.  one  carpel  of  the  fruit  of  an  Umbelliferous  plant,  121. 

Merismatic,  separating  into  parts  by  the  formation  of  partitions  across. 

Merous,  from  the  Greek  for  part;  used  with  numeral  prefix  to  denote  the  number  of 
pieces  in  a  set  or  circle:  as  Monomerous,  of  only  one,  Dimerous,  with  two,  Tri- 
merous,  with  three  parts  (sepals,  petals,  stamens,  &c.)  ni  each  circle. 

Mesocarp,  the  middle  part  of  a  pericarp,  when  that  is  distinguishable  into  three 
layers,  120. 

Mesophlceum,  the  middle  or  green  bark. 

Micropyle,  the  closed  orifice  of  the  sied,  110,  12G. 

Microspore,  the  smaller  kind  of  spore  when  there  are  two  kinds,  161. 

Midrib,  the  middle  or  main  rib  of  a  leaf,  50. 

Milk-vessels,  1-38. 

Miniate,  vermilion-colored. 

Mitriform,  mitre-shaped:  in  the  form  of  a  peaked  cap,  or  one  cleft  at  the  top. 

Moniliform,  necklace-shaped;  a  cylindrical  body  contracted  at  intervals. 

Monocarpic  (duration),  flowermg  and  seeding  but  once,  38. 

Monochlamydeous,  having  onl_v  one  floral  envelope. 

Monocotyledonous  (embryo),  with  only  one  cotyledon,  24. 

Monocotyledonous  Plants,  24.     Monocofyls,  24. 

MoncBcious,  or  Monoicous  (flower),  having  stamens  or  pistils  only,  85. 

Monoijynous  (flower),  having  only  one  pistil,  or  one  style,  105. 

Manopelahms  (flower),  with  the  corolla  of  one  piece,  89. 

Monophyllous,  one-leaved,  or  of  one  piece. 

Mmios,  Greek  for  solitary  or  only  one;  thus  Monndelphous,  stamens  united  by  their 
filaments  into  one  set,  99 ;   Monandroiis  (flower),  having  only  one  stamen,  100. 

Monosepalous,  a  calyx  of  one  piece;  i.  e.  with  the  sepals  united  into  one  body. 

Monospermous,  one-seeded. 

Monstrosity,  an  unnatural  devintion  from  the  nsual  structure  or  form. 

Morphology,  Morphological  Botany,  9;  the  department  of  botany  which  treats  of 
the  forms  which  an  organ  may  assume. 

Moschate,  Musk-Uke  in  odor. 

Movements,  149. 

Mucronate,  tipped  with  an  abrupt  short  point  (Macro).  54. 

Mucronulate.  tipped  with  a  minute  abrupt  point;  a  diminutive  of  the  last. 

Multi-,  in  composition,  many;  as  Multangular,  many-anirled :  Multiripil  d,  many- 
headed,  &c.;  Multifarious,  in  many  rows  or  ranks;  Multijid,  many-cleft;  Mul- 
tilocular,  many-celled;  Multiserial,  in  many  row.s. 

Multiple  Fruits.  l"]8,  124. 

Muricate,  beset  with  short  and  hard  or  prickly  points. 
Muriform,  wall-like;  resembling  courses  of  bricks  in  a  wall. 
Muticous,  pointless,  blunt,  unarmed. 

Alycelinm,  the  spawn  of  Fungi;  i.  e.  the  filaments  from  which  JIushrooms,  &c., 
originate,  172. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  213 

Naked,  wanting  some  usual  covering,  as  aclilaniydeous  flowers,  86,  g}'mnospermous 
seeds,  109,  125,  &c. 

Names  in  botany,  179. 

Nanus,  Latin  for  dwarf. 

Napiform,  turnip-sliaped,  35. 

Natural  iSystem,  182. 

Naturalized,  introduced  from  a  foreign  country,  and  flourishing  wild. 

Navicular,  boat-shaped,  like  the  glumes  of  most  Grasses. 

Necklace-shaped,  looking  like  a  string  of  beads;  see  moniliform. 

Nectar,  the  sweet  secretion  in  flowers  from  which  bees  make  honey,  &c. 

Nectariferous,  honey-bearing;  or  having  a  nectary. 

Nectary,  the  old  name  for  petals  and  other  parts  of  the  flower  when  of  unusual 
shape,  especially  when  honey-bearing.  So  the  hollow  spur-shaped  petals  of 
Columbine  were  called  nectaries;  also  the  curious  long-clawed  petals  of  Monks- 
hood, 87,  &c. 

Needle-shaped,  long,  slender,  and  rigid,  like  the  leaves  of  Pines. 

Ntmorose  or  Nemoral,  inhabiting  groves. 

Nerve,  a  name  for  the  ribs  or  veins  of  leaves  when  simple  and  parallel,  50. 

Nerved,  furnished  with  nerves,  or  simple  and  parallel  ribs  or  veins,  50. 

Nei'vose,  conspicuously  nerved.     Nervulose,  minutely  nervose. 

Netted-veined,  furnished  with  branching  veins  forming  network,  50,  51. 

Neuter,  Neutral,  sexless.     Neutral  flower,  79. 

Niger,  Latin  for  black.    Nigricans,  Latin  for  verging  to  black. 

Nitid,  shining 

Nival,  living  in  or  near  snow.     Niveus,  snow-white. 

Nodding,  bending  so  that  the  summit  hangs  downward. 

Node,  a  knot;  tha  "joints"  of  a  stem,  or  the  part  whence  a  leaf  or  a  pair  of  leaves 
springs,  13. 

Nodose,  knotty  or  knobby.     Nodulose,  furnished  with  little  knobs  or  knots. 

Nomenclature,  175,  179. 

Normal,  according  to  rule,  natural. 

Notate,  marked  with  spots  or  lines  of  a  diiTerent  color. 

Nucamentaceous,  relating  to  or  resembling  a  small  nut. 

Nuciform,  nut-shaped  or  nut-like. 

Nucleus,  the  kernel  of  an  ovule  (110)  or  seed  (127)  of  a  cell. 

Nucule,  same  as  nutlet. 

Nude,  (Latin.  A^udus),  naked.     So  Nudicaulis,  naked-stemmed,  &c. 

Nut,  Latin  Nux,  a.  hard,  mostly  one-seeded  indehiscent  fruit;  as  a  chestnut,  butter- 
nut, acorn,  121. 

Nutant,  nodding. 

Nutlet,  a  little  nut;  or  the  stone  of  a  drupe. 

Ob-  (meaning  over  against),  when  prefixed  to  words  signifies  inversion ;  as,  Ob- 
compressed,  flattened  the  opposite  of  the  usual  way;  Obcordale,  heart-shaped, 
with  the  broad  and  notched  end  at  the  apex  instead  of  the  base,  54;  Oblance- 
olate,  lance-shaped  with  the  tapering  point  downwards,  52. 

Oblique,  applied  to  leaves.  &c.,  means  unequal-sided. 

Oblong,  from  two  to  four  times  as  long  as  broad,  52. 

Obovate,  inversely  ovate,  the  broad  end  upward,  53.     Obovoid,  solid  obovate. 

Obtuse,  blunt  or  round  at  the  end,  54. 

Obrerse,  same  as  inverse. 

Obvolute  (in  the  bud),  when  the  margins  of  one  piece  or  leaf  alternately  overlap 
those  of  the  opposite  one. 

Ocellate,  with  a  circular  colored  patch,  like  an  ej'e. 

Ockroleucous,  yellowish-white  :  dull  cream-color. 

Ocreate,  furnished  with  Ocrea  (boots),  or  stipules  in  the  form  of  sheaths,  57. 

Octo-,  Latin  for  eight,  enters  into  the  composition  of  Octngynous,  with  eight  pistils 
or  styles;  Octamerous,  its  parts  in  eights;  Octandrous,  with  eight  stamens,  &c. 


214  GLOSSARY   AND  INDEX. 

Oculate,  with  eye-sliaped  markintj. 

Oj/icinal,  used  in  luediciiie,  therefdre  kept  in  the  shops. 

Offset,  short  branches  next  the  ground  which  take  root,  40. 

OiiJes,  terminati(ii),  from  tiie  (Jreek,  to  denote  likeness;  so  Diantkoides,  Pink-like. 

Oltraceous,  esculent,  as  a  pot-herb. 

Oligos,  Greek  for  few;  thus  Oliijanthous,  few-fiowered,  &c. 

Olivaceous,  olive-Kreen. 

Oophoridium,  a  name  for  spore-case  containing  niacrospores. 

Opaque,  applied  to  a  surface,  means  dull,  not  shining. 

Operculale,  furnished  with  a  lid  (Oi>erculum),  as  the  spore-case  of  Mosses,  1C3. 

Opposite,  said  of  leaves  and  branches  when  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  from  each 

other  (i.  e.  in  pairs),  29,  G8.     Stamens  are  oj)posite  the  petals,  &c.,  when  they 

stand  before  tliem. 
OppositiJ'olius,  situated  opposite  a  leaf. 
Orbicular,  Orbiculnte,  circular  in  outline,  or  nearly  so,  52. 
Order,  group  below  class,  178.     Ordinal  names,  180. 
Organ,  any  member  of  the  plant,  as  a  leaf,  a  stamen,  &c. 
Organogi-ajihy,  study  of  organs,  9.     Oryanugenesis,  that  of  the  development  of 

organs. 
Orgyalis,  of  the  height  of  a  man. 
Orthos,  Greek  for  straight;  thus,  Orthocarpous,  with  straight  fruit;   Orthostichous, 

straight-ranked. 
Ortkotropous  (ovule  or  seed).  111. 
Osseous,  of  a  bony  texture. 

Outgrowths,  growths  from  the  surface  of  a  leaf,  petal,  &c. 
Oval,  broadly  ellipticMl,  52. 

Ovary,  that  part  of  the  pistil  containing  the  ovules  or  future  seeds,  14,  80,  105. 
Ovate,  shaped  like  an  egg,  witli  the  broader  end  downwards;  or,  in  plain  surfaces, 

such  as  leaves,  like  the  section  of  an  egg  lengthwise,  52. 
Ovoid,  ovate  or  oval  in  a  solid  form. 

Ovule,  the  body  which  is  destined  to  become  a  seed,  14,  80,  105,  110. 
Oouliferous,  ovule-bearing. 

Palate,  a  projection  of  the  lower  lip  of  a  labiate  corolla  into  the  throat,  as  in  Snap- 
dragon, &c. 

Palea  (plural  pn/ece),  chaff;  the  inner  husks  of  Grasses;  the  chaff  or  bracts  on  the 
receptacle  of  many  Compositie,  as  Coreopsis,  and  Sunflower. 

P(deaceuus,  furnished  with  chaff,  or  chaffy  in  texture. 

Paleolate,  having  Paleolce  or  palejE  of  a  second  order,  or  narrow  palene. 

Palet,  English  term  for  palea. 

Palmate,  when  leaflets  or  the  divisions  of  a  leaf  all  spread  from  the  apex  of  the 
petiole,  like  the  hand  with  the  outspread  fingers,  57,  58. 

Pidmatehj  (veined,  lobed,  &-C.),  in  a  palmate  manner,  51,  .56. 

P(diiiiitijid,  -lobeil,  -sect,  palmately  cleft,  or  lobed,  or  divided. 

Pitludose,  inhabiting  marshes.     Palustrine,  same. 

Pandurifoi^m,  or  Pandurate,  fiddle-shaped  (which  see). 

Panicle,  an  open  and  branched  cluster,  81. 

Panicled,  Paniculate,  arranged  in  panicles,  or  like  a  panicle. 

Piinnose,  covered  with  a  felt  of  woolly  hairs. 

Papery,  of  about  the  consistence  of  letter-paper. 

Papilionaceous,  butterflv-shaped;  applied  to  such  a  corolla  as  that  of  the  Pea,  91. 

Papilla  (plural  /laj/ilhe),  little  nipple-sliape<l  protuberances. 

Papillate,  Papillvsf,  covered  with  papilla'. 

Pappus,  thistle-down.  The  down  crowning  the  achenium  of  the  Tiiistle,  Groundsel. 
&c.,  and  whatever  in  Compositoe  answers  to  calyx,  whether  hairs,  teeth,  or 
scales,  121. 

Papyraceous,  like  parcliment  in  texture. 

Paralltl-veined  or  nerved  (leaves),  50. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  215 

Paraphyses,  jointed  filaments  mixed  with  the  antheiidia  of  INIosses. 

Parasitic,  liviiij^  as  a  parasite,  i.  e.  on  anotiier  plant  or  animal,  ■il. 

Parenchemyluus,  composed  of  parenchyma. 

Parenchijma,  soft  cellular  tissue  of  plants,  like  the  green  pulp  of  leaves,  132. 

Parietal  (placenta,  &c.),  attached  to  the  walls  (parities)  of  the  ovary. 

Paripinnatc,  pinnate  with  an  even  number  of  lealiets. 

Parted,  separated  or  cleft  into  parts  almost  to  the  base,  55. 

Parthenogenesis,  producing  seed  without  fertilization. 

Partial  involucre,  same  as  an  invnlucel;  partial  petiole,  a  division  of  a  main  leaf- 
stalk or  the  stalk  of  a  leaflet;  partial  j)eduncle,  a  branch  of  a  peduncle;  par- 
tial umbel,  an  umbellet,  70. 

Partition,  a  segment  of  a  parted  leaf;  or  an  internal  wall  in  an  ovary,  anther,  &c. 

Patelliform,  disk-shaped,  like  tUe  patella  or  kneepan. 

Patent,  spreading,  open.     Patulous,  moderately  spreading. 

Pauci-,  in  composition,  few;  a.» paucijlorous,  few-flowered,  &c. 

Pear-shaped,  solid  obovate,  the  shape  of  a  pear. 

Pectinate,  pinnatitid  or  pinnately  divided  into  narrow  and  close  divisions,  like  the 
teeth  of  a  comb. 

Pedate,  like  a  bird's  foot;  palmate  or  palmately  cleft,  with  the  side  divisions  again 
cleft,  as  in  Viola  pedata,  &c. 

Pedicel,  the  stalk  of  each  particular  flower  of  a  cluster,  73. 

Pedicellate,  Pedicelled,  borne  on  a  pedicel. 

Pedalis,  Latin  for  a  foot  high  or  long. 

Peduncle,  a  flower-stalk,  whether  of  a  single  flower  or  of  a  flower-cluster,  73. 

Peduncled,  Pedunculate,  furnished  with  a  peduncle. 

Peloria,  an  abnormal  return  to  regularity  and  symmetry  in  an  irregular  flower;  com- 
monest in  Snapdragon. 

Peltate,  shield-shaped;  said  of  a  leaf,  whatever  its  shape,  when  the  petiole  is  at- 
tached to  the  lower  side,  somewhere  within  the  margin,  5-3. 

Pelviform,  basin-shaped. 

Pendent,  hanging.    Pendulous,  somewhat  hanging  or  drooping. 

Penicillate,  PenicilliJ'orm,  tipped  with  a  tuft  of  tine  hairs,  like  a  painter's  pencil;  as 
the  stigmas  of  some  Grasses. 

Pennate,  same  as  pinnate.     Penninerved  and  Penniceined,  pinnate' v  veined,  51. 

Penta- (in  words  of  Greek  composition),  five;  as  Ptntadttphous,  99;  Pentoffyanus, 
with  Ave  pistils  or  styles;  Pentamerous,  with  its  j)arts  in  fives,  or  on  the  plan  of 
five;  Pentandrous,  having  five  stamens,  112;  Pintustichous,  in  five  ranks,  iS:c. 

Pepo,  a  fruit  like  the  Melon  and  Cucumber,  119. 

Perennial,  lasting  from  v-ear  to  year,  .38. 

Perfect  (flower),  having  both  stamens  and  pistils,  81. 

Perfoliate,  passing  through  the  leaf,  in  appearance,  GO. 

Perfoi-ate,  pierced  with  holes,  or  with  transparent  dots  resembling  holes,  as  an 
Orange-leaf. 

Pert-,  Greek  for  around;  from  which  arc  such  terms  as 

Perianth,  the  leaves  of  the  flower  collectively,  79. 

Pericarp,  the  ripened  ovary;  the  walls  of  the  fruit,  117. 

Pericarpic,  belonging  to  the  pericarp. 

Perit/onium,  Perit/one,  ^ame  us  perianth. 

Perigynium,  bodies  around  the  pistil;  applied  to  the  closed  cup  or  bottle-shaped 
body  (of  bracts)  which  encloses  the  ovary  of  Sedges,  and  to  the  bristles,  little 
scales,  &.C.,  of  the  flowers  of  some  other  Cyperacea;. 

Periyynous,  the  petals  and  stamens  borne  on  the  calyx,  95,  99. 

Peii'pfi^.ric,  around  the  outside,  or  peri])hery,  of  any  organ. 

PerLiperm,  a  name  for  the  albumen  of  a  seed. 

Peristome,  the  frmge  of  teeth  to  the  spore-case  of  Mosses,  163. 

Persistent,  remaining  beyond  the  period  when  such  parts  commonly  fall,  as  the 
leaves  of  evergreens,  and  the  calyx  of  such  flowers  as  persist  during  the  growth 
of  the  fruit. 


216  GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX. 

Personate,  masked;  a  bilabiate  corolla  witii  aptilnlc  in  tlio  throat,  92, 

Pertnse,  perforated  with  a  hole  or  slit. 

Perulate,  haviii^^  scales  (Pcrulce),  such  as  biid-scales. 

Pes,  pedis,  Latin  for  the  foot  or  support,  whence  Lungipcs.  long-stalked,  &C. 

Petal,  a  leaf  of  the  corolla,  14,  79, 

Pelnlody,  metamorphosis  of  stamens,  &c.,  into  petals. 

Petaloid,  PeUiUne,  petal-like;  resembling  or  colored  like  petals. 

Petiole,  a  footstalk  of  a  leaf;  a  leaf  stalk,  49. 

Petioled,  Petiolate,  furnished  with  a  petiole. 

Petiululate,  said  of  a  leatlet  when  raised  on  its  own  partial  leafstalk. 

Petrmus,  Latin  for  growing  on  rocks. 

Phalanx,  2}Jinl(infjes,  bundles  of  stamens. 

Phceno(jamous,  or  Phanerof/amous,  plants  bearing   flowers   and   producing  seeds; 

same  as  Flowering  Plants.     Phcenojams,  Plunierof/ams,  10. 
Phlmum,  Greek  name  for  bark,  whence  Endojjldaium,  inner  bark,  &c. 
P/imniceous,  deep  red  verging  to  scarlet. 
Plnjcology,  the  botany  of  Algre. 

PlnjUoclndia,  branches  assuming  the  form  and  function  of  leaves. 
Phyllodium  (plural,  phyllodia),  a  leaf  where  the  seeming  blade  is  a  dilated  petiole, 

as  in  New  Holland  Acacias,  61. 
Pliyllome,  foliar  parts,  those  answering  to  leaves  in  their  nature. 
PliyUon  {\i\ural,  pliylla),  Greek  for  leaf  and  leaves;  used  in  many  compound  terms 

and  names. 
Phyllotaxis,  or  Phyllolaxy,  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem,  67. 
Physiolo(jical  Botany,  9. 

Phytoffvaphy,  relates  to  characterizing  and  describing  plants. 
Pliyton,  or  Phytomer,  a  name  used  to  designate  the  pieces  which  by  their  repetition 

make  up  a  plant,  theoretically,  viz.  a  joint  of  stem  with  its  leaf  or  pair  of  leaves. 
Pileus  of  a  mushroom,  172. 

Pili/erous,  bearing  a  slender  bristle  or  hair  (piluin),  or  beset  with  hairs. 
Pilose,  hairy;  clothed  with  soft  slender  hairs. 

Pinna,  a  primary  division  with  its  leaflets  of  a  bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaf. 
Pinnule,  a  secondary  division  of  a  bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaf,  66. 
Pinnate  (leaf),  when  leaflets  are  arranged  along  the  sides  of  a  common  petiole,  57. 
Pinnately  lobed,  cleft,  parted,  divided,  veined,  56. 

Pinnatijid,  Pinnatisect,  same  as  pinnately  cleft  and  pinnately  parted,  56. 
Pisiform,  pea-shaped. 

Pistil,  the  seed-bearing  organ  of  the  flower,  14,  80,  105. 
Pistillate,  having  a  pistil,  85. 

Pistillidium,  the  body  which  in  Mosses  answers  to  the  pistil,  159,  164. 
Pitchers,  64. 

Pith,  the  cellular  centre  of  an  exogenous  stem,  138. 

Placenta,  the  surface  or  part  of  the  ovary  to  which  the  ovules  are  attached,  107. 
Pla cent i form,  nearly  same  as  quoit-shaped. 
Plaited  (in  the  bud),  or  Plicate,  folded,  72,  98. 

Platy-,  Greek  for  broad,  in  compounds,  such  as  Platyphyllous,  broad-leaved,  &c. 
Pleio-,  Greek  for  full  or  abounding,  used  in  compounds,  such  as  Pltiopetalous,  of 

man}-  petals,  &c. 
Plumbeus,  lead-colored. 
Plumose,  feathery;  when  any  slender  body  (such  as  a  bristle  of  a  pappus  or  a  style) 

is  beset  with  hairs  along  its  sides,  like  the  plume  of  a  feather. 
Plumule,  the  bud  or  first  shoot  of  a  germinating  plantlet  above  the  cotyledons,  13. 
Pluri;  in  composition,  many  or  several;  as  Plurifoliolate,  with  several  leaflets. 
Pod,  specially  a  legume,  122;  also  may  be  applied  to  any  sort  of  capsule. 
Podium,  a  footstalk  or  stipe,  used  only  in  Greek  comp<uinds,  as  (suffi.x:ed)  Lepto- 

podus,  slender-stalked,  or  (prefixed)  Podocephnlus,  with  a  stalked  head,  and 

in  Podosperm,  a  seed  stalk  or  funiculus. 
Pofjon,  Greek  for  beard,  comes  into  various  compounds. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  217 

Pointless,  destitute  of  any  pointed  tip,  such  as  a  nuicri),  nwn,  ncumination,  &c. 

Pollen,  tlie  fertilizing  powder  contained  in  tlie  anther,  14,  80,  103. 

Pollen-growth,  117.     Polleniferous,  pollen-bearing. 

Pollen-mass,  Pollinium,  the  united  mass  of  pollen,  104,  as  in  Milkweed  and  Orchis. 

Pollicaris,  Latin  for  an  inch  long. 

Pollination,  the  application  of  pollen  to  the  stigma,  114. 

Poly-,  iu  compound  words  of  Greek  origin,  same  as  multi-  in  those  of  Latin  origin, 

viz.  many,  as 
Polyadelphous,  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  several  bundles,  100. 
Polyandrous,  with  numerous  stamens  (inserted  on  the  receptacle),  100. 
Polycaipic,  term  used  by  DeCandolle  in  the  sense  of  perennial. 
Polycotyledonous,  having  many  (more  than  two)  cotyledons,  as  Pines,  23. 
Polyyamous,  having  some  perfect  and  some  unisexual  flowers,  85. 
Polygonal,  many-angled. 
Pohjf/ynous,  with  many  pistils  or  styles,  105. 
Polymerous,  formed  of  manj^  parts  of  each  set. 
Polymorphous,  of  several  or  varying  forms, 

Pvlypetaluus,  when  the  petals  are  distinct  or  separate  (whether  few  or  many),  89. 
Polyphyllous,  many-leaved;  formed  of  several  distinct  pieces. 
Polyseimlous,  same  as  the  last  when  applied  to  the  calyx,  89. 
Puiyspermous,  many-seeded. 

Pome,  the  apple,  pear,  and  similar  fleshy  fruits,  119. 
Pomiferous,  pome-bearing. 
Porrect,  outstretched. 

Posterior  side  or  portion  of  a  flower  (when  axillary)  is  th.'-t  toward  the  axis,  96. 
Pouch,  the  silicle  or  short  pod,  as  of  Shepherd's  Purse,  123. 
Prcecocious  (Latin,  pnecox),  unusually  early  in  development. 
Prcefloration,  same  as  (estivation,  97. 
PneJ'oliation,  same  as  vernation,  71. 
Prcemorse,  ending  abruptly,  as  if  bitten  off. 
Pratensis,  Latin  for  growing  in  meadows. 

Prickles,  sharp  elevations  of  the  bark,  coming  off  with  it,  as  of  the  Rose. 
Prickly,  bearing  prickles,  or  sharp  projections  like  them. 
Piimine,  the  outer  coat  of  the  covering  of  the  ovule,  110. 

Primordial,  earliest  formed;  primordial  leaves  are  the  first  after  the  cotyledons. 
Prismatic,  prism-shaped;  having  three  or  more  angles  bounding  flat  sides. 
Procerous,  tall,  or  tall  and  slim. 

Process,  any  projection  from  the  surface  or  edge  of  a  bod}'. 
P rocumbent,  trailing  on  the  ground,  39. 
Procurrent,  running  through  but  not  projecting. 
Produced,  extended  or  projecting;  the  upper  sepal  of  a  Larkspur  is  produced  above 

into  a  spur,  87. 
Proliferous  (literally,  bearing  offspring),  wh^re  a  new  branch  rises  from  an  older 

one,  or  one  head  or  cluster  of  flowers  out  of  another. 
Propaculum  or  Propagulum,  a  shoot  for  propagation, 
Prosenchyma,  a  tissue  of  wood-cells. 
Prostrate,  lying  flat  on  the  ground,  39. 

Protandrous  or  Proterandrous,  the  anthers  first  maturing,  116. 
P roteranthous,  flowering  before  leafing. 

Proterotjynous  or  Protogynous,  the  stigmas  first  to  mature,  116. 
Prothallium  or  Prothallus,  160. 

Protoplasm,  the  soft  nitrogenous  lining  or  contents,  or  living  part,  of  cells,  129. 
Protos,  Greek  for  first;  in  various  compounds. 
Pruinose,  Pruinate,  frosted;  covered  with  a  powder  like  hoar-frost. 
Pseudo-,  Greek  for  false.     Pseudo-bulb,  the  aerial  corms  of  epiphytic  Orchids,  &c. 
Psilus,  Greek  for  bare  or  naked,  used  in-many  compounds. 
Pteridophyta,  Pteridophytes,  15f>. 
Pteris,  Greek  for  wing,  iiud  general  name  for  Fern,  enters  into  many  compounds. 


218  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Pubervlenl,  covered  with  fine  .and  sliort  or  almost  imperceptible  down. 

Pubescent,  hairy  ur  downy,  e.s])ecially  witii  tine  and  soft  hairs  or  pubescence. 

Pidverulenl  or  Pulreraceuus,  as  if  dusted  with  fine  powder. 

Pulvimite,  cushioned,  or  sliaped  liiic  a  cushion. 

Pumilus,  low  or  little. 

Punctate,  dotted,  either  with  minute  holes  or  what  look  as  such. 

Puncticulate.  minutely  punctate. 

Punr/ent,  prickly-tipped. 

Puniceous,  carmine-red. 

Purpureus,  originally  red  or  crimson,  more  used  for  duller  or  bluish-red. 

PusiUus,  weak  and  small,  tiny. 

Putamen,  the  stone  of  a  drupe,  or  the  shell  of  a  nut,  120. 

Pyt/mceux,  Latin  for  dwarf. 

Pyramidal,  shaped  like  a  pyramid. 

Pyrene,  Pyrena,  a  seed-like  nutlet  or  stone  of  a  small  drupe. 

Pyviform,  pear-shaped. 

Pyxidate,  furnished  with  a  lid. 

Pyxis,  Pyxidium,  a  pod  opening  round  horizontally  by  a  lid,  124. 

Quadri-,  in  words  of  Latin  origin,  four  ;  as  Quadrangular,  four-angled ;  Quadri- 
foliate,  four-leaved;    Quadrijid,  four-cleft.     Quaternate  in  fours. 

Quinate,  in  fives.     Quinque,  five. 

Quincuncial,  in  a  quincunx;  when  the  parts  in  aestivation  are  five,  two  of  them 
outside,  two  inside,  and  one  half  out  and  half  in. 

Quintuple,  five-fold. 

Race,  a  marked  variety  which  may  be  perpetuated  from  seed,  176. 

Raceme,  a  flower-cluster,  with  one-flowered  pedicels  arranged  along  the  sides  of  a 
general  peduncle,  73. 

Racemose,  bearing  racemes,  or  raceme-like. 

Rachis,  see  rhachis. 

Radial,  belonging  to  the  ray. 

Radiate,  or  Radiant,  furnished  with  ray-flowers,  94. 

Radiate-veined,  52. 

Radical,  belonging  to  the  root,  or  apparently  coming  from  the  root. 

Radicant.  rooting,  taking  root  on  or  above  the  ground. 

Radicels,  little  roots  or  rootlets. 

Radicle,  the  stem  part  of  the  embryo,  the  lower  end  of  which  forms  the  root,  11,  127 

Rameal,  belonging  to  a  branch.     Ramose,  full  of  branches  (rami). 

Ramentaceous,  beset  with  thin  chaffy  scales  {Ramenta),  as  the  stalks  of  many  Ferns. 

Ramification,  branching,  27. 

Ramulose,  full  of  branchlets  {ramuli). 

Raphe,  see  rhaphe. 

Ray,  parts  diverging  from  a  centre,  the  marginal  flowers  of  a  head  (as  of  Coreopsis, 
9i),  or  cluster,  as  of  Hydrangea  (78),  when  different  from  the  rest,  especially 
when  ligulate  and  diverging  (like  rays  or  sunbeams);  also  the  branches  of  an 
umbel,  74. 

Ray-flowers,  94. 

Receptacle,  the  axis  or  support  of  a  flower,  81,  112;  also  the  common  axis  or  sup- 
port of  a  head  of  flowers,  73. 

Reclined,  turned  or  curved  downwards ;  nearly  recumbent. 

Rectinerved,  with  straight  nerves  or  veins. 

Recurred,  curved  outwards  or  backwards. 

Reduplicate  (in  restivation),  valvate  with  the  margins  turned  outwards  97. 

Reflexed,  bent  cutwards  or  backw.irds. 

Rifracted,  bent  suddenly,  so  as  to  appear  broken  at  the  bend. 

Rifjular,  all  the  parts  similar  in  shape,  82. 

Utniform,  kiduey-shaped,  53. 


GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX.  219 

Repand,  wavy-margined,  55. 

Repent,  creeping,  i.  e.  prostrate  and  rooting  underneath. 

Replum,  the  frame  of  some  pods  (as  of  Prickly  Poppy  and  Cress),  persistent  after 

the  valves  fall  away. 
Replant,  same  as  repent. 

Resupinate,  inverted,  or  appearing  as  if  upside  down,  or  reversed. 
Reticulated,  the  veins  forming  network,  50.     Retiform,  in  network. 
Retinerved,  reticulate-veined. 
Retrojiexed,  bent  backwards;  same  as  reflexcd. 

Refuse,  blunted;  tlie  apex  not  onI\'  obtuse  but  soro°what  indented,  54. 
Revtihite,  rolled  backwards,  as  the  margins  of  many  leaves,  72. 
Rhachis  (the  backbone),  the  axis  of  a  spike  or  other  body,  73. 
Rhaphe,  the  continuation  of  the  seed-stalk  along  the  side  of  an  anatropous  ovule  or 

seed,  112,  126. 
Rliaphides,  crystals,  especially  needle-shaped  ones,  in  the  tissues  of  plants,  137. 
Rhizanthous,  flowering  from  the  root. 
Rhlzoma,  Rhizome,  a  rootstock,  42-44. 

Rhombic,  in  the  shape  of  a  rhomb.     Rhumboidal,  approaching  that  shape. 
Rib.  the  principal  piece,  or  one  of  the  principal  pieces  of  the  framework  of  a  leaf, 

or  anj-  similar  elevated  line  along  a  body,  49,  50. 
Rimose,  having  chinks  or  crncks. 
Ring,  an  elastic  band  on  the  spore-cases  of  Ferns,  159. 
Riiiyent,  grinning;  gaping  open,  92. 
Riparious,  on  river-banks. 

Rivalis,  Latin  for  growing  along  brooks;  or  Rimlai-is,  in  rivulets. 
Root,  33. 
Root-hairs,  35. 

Rootlets,  small  roofs,  or  root-branches,  33. 

Rootitock,  root-like  trunks  or  portions  of  stems  on  or  under  ground,  42. 
Roridus,  dewy. 

Rosaceous,  arranged  like  the  petals  of  a  rose. 
Rostellate,  bearing  a  small  beak  {Rostellum). 
Rostrate,  bearing  a  beak  (Rostrum)  or  a  prolonged  appendage. 
Rosulate,  in  a  rosette  or  cluster  of  spreading  leaves. 
Rotate,  wheel-shaped,  89. 
Rotund,  rounded  or  roundish  in  outline. 

Ruber,  Latin  for  red  in  general.     Rubescent,  Rubicund,  reddish  or  blushing. 
Rudimentary,  imperfectly  developed,  or  in  an  early  state  of  development. 
Rufous,  Rufescent,  brownish-red  or  reddish-brown. 
Rugose,  wrinkled;  roughened  with  wrinkles. 
Ruminated  (albumen),  penetrated  with  irregular  channels  or  portions,  as  a  nutmeg, 

looking  as  if  chewed. 
Runcinate,  coarsely  saw-toothed  or  cut,  the  pointed  tectii  turned  tnward.s  the  base  of 

the  leaf,  as  the  leaf  of  a  Dandelion. 
Runner,  a  slender  and  prostrate  branch,  rooting  at  the  end,  or  at  the  joints,  40. 

Sabulose,  growing  in  sand. 

Sac,  anv  closed  membrane,  or  a  deep  purse-shaped  cavity. 

Saccate,  sac-shaped. 

Sagittate,  arrowiiead-shaped,  53. 

Salsuginous,  growing  in  brackish  soil. 

Salver-shnped,  or  Snlver-form,  with  a  border  spreading  at  right  angles  to  a  slender 

.    tube,  89. 
Samara,  a  wing-fruit,  or  key,  122. 
Samaroid,  like  a  samara  or  key-fruit. 
Sap,  the  iuices  of  plants  generalh',  136.     Sapwood,  142. 
Saprophytes.  37. 
Sarcocarp,  the  fleshy  part  of  a  stone-fruit,  120. 


220  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Sarmentaceous,   Sarmentose,  bearing  long  and  flexible  twigs  (Sa7-ments),  eitliei- 

spreading  or  procmnbcut. 
Sato-toothed,  see  seriate,  55. 
Scabrous,  rough  or  harsh  to  the  touch. 

Scalariform,  with  cross-bands,  resembling  the  steps  of  a  ladder,  1-34. 
Scales,  of  buds,  28;  of  bulbs,  &c.,  4G. 
Scalloped,  same  as  crenate,  55. 

Scaly,  furnisiied  with  scales,  or  scale-like  in  texture. 
Scandent,  climbing,  3!). 

Scape,  a  peduncle  rising  from  the  ground  or  near  it,  as  in  many  Violets. 
Scapiform,  scape-like. 
Scapigerous,  scape-bearing. 
Scar  of  the  seed,  126.     Leaf-scars,  27,  28. 
S carious  or  Scariose,  thin,  dry,  and  membranous. 
Scion,  a  shoot  or  slip  used  for  grafting. 
Scleras,  Greek  for  hard,  hence  Sclerocaipous,  hard-fruited. 
Scobiform,  resembling  sawdust. 

Scorpiuid  or  Scorpioidal,  curved  or  circinate  at  the  end,  77. 
Scrobiculate,  pitted;  excavated  into  shallow  pits. 

Scurf,  Scurf  ness,  minute  scales  on  the  surface  of  many  leaves,  as  of  Goosefoot. 
Scutate,  Scutiform,  buckler-shaped. 

Scutellate,  or  Scutelliform,  saucer-shaped  or  platter-shai)ed. 
Secund,  one-sided;  i.  e.  where  flowers,  leaves,  &c.,  are  all  turned  to  one  side. 
Secundine,  the  inner  coat  of  the  ovule,  110. 
Seed,  125.     Seed-leaves,  see  cotyledons.     Seed-vessel,  127. 
Segment,  a  subdivision  or  lobe  of  anj'  cleft  body. 
Seyreyate,  separated  from  each  other. 
Semi;  in  compound  words  of  Latin  origin,  half;  as 
Semi-adherent,  as  the  calyx  or  ovary  of  Purslane;  Semic"i-date,  half-heart-shaped; 

Semilunar,  like  a  half-moon ;  Semiuvate,  hall-ovate,  &i'. 
Seminal,  relating  to  the  seed  (Semen).     Seminiferous,  seed-bearing. 
Sempervirent,  evergreen. 
Sensitiveness  in  plants,  149,  152. 
Senary,  in  sixes. 

Sepal,  a  leaf  or  division  of  the  calyx,  14,  79. 
Sepaloid,  sepal-like.     Sepaline,  relating  to  the  sepals. 
Separated  Flowers,  those  having  stanioiis  or  pistils  only,  85. 
Septate,  divided  by  partitions. 
Septenate,  with  parts  in  sevens. 

Septicidal,  where  dehiscence  is  through  the  partitions,  12-3. 
Septiferous,  bearing  the  partition. 

Septifragal,  where  the  valves  in  dehiscence  break  away  from  the  partitions,  12-5. 
Septum  (plural  septa),  a  partition  or  dissepiment. 
Serial,  or  Seriate,  in  rows ;  as  biserial,  in  two  rows,  &c. 
Sericeous,  silky;  clothed  with  satiu}'  pubescence. 
Serotinous,  late  in  the  season. 

Serrate,  the  margin  cut  into  teeth  {Serratures)  pointing  forwards,  55. 
Serrulate,  same  as  the  last,  but  with  fine  teeth. 
Sessile,  sitting;  without  an}'  stalk. 

Sesqui-,  Latin  for  one  and  a  half;  so  Sesquipedalis,  a  foot  and  a  half  long. 
Seta,  a  bristle,  or  a  slender  body  or  appendage  resembling  a  bristle. 
Setaceous,  bristle-like.     Setifoim,  bristle-shaped. 

Setigerous,  bearing  bristles.     Setose,  beset  with  bristles  or  bristly  hairs. 
f^etula,  a  diminutive  bristle.     Sefu/ose,  provided  with  such. 
Sex,  six.     Sexangular,  six-angled.     Sexfariotis,  six-faced. 
Sheath,  the  base  of  such  leaves  as  those  of  Grasses,  which  are 
Sheathing,  wrapped  round  the  stem. 
Shield-shaped,  same  as  scutate,  or  as  peltate,  53. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  221 

Shrub,  Shrubby,  39. 

Sieve-ctlls,  140. 

Sigmoid,  curved  in  two  directions,  like  the  letter  S,  or  the  Greek  sigma. 

Silicic,  a  pouch,  or  short  pod  of  the  Cress  Family,  ii-i. 

Siliculose,  bearing  a  silicle,  or  a  fruit  resenibliug  it. 

Silique,  capsule  of  tlie  Cress  Family,  123. 

Siliquose,  bearing  siliques  or  pods  which  resemble  siliques. 

Silky,  glossy  with  a  coat  of  lino  and  soft,  close-pressed,  straight  hairs. 

Silver-grain,  the  medullary  rays  of  wood,  139. 

Silvery,  shmnig  white  or  bluish-gray,  usually  from  a  silky  pubescence. 

Simple,  of  one  piece ;  opposed  to  compound. 

Siidstrorse,  turned  to  the  left. 

Sinuate,  with  margin  alternate!}'  bowed  inwards  and  outwards,  55. 

Sinus,  a  recess  or  bay,  the  re-entering  angle  between  two  lobes  or  projections. 

Sleep  ofPlunU  (so  called),  151. 

Smooth,  properly  speaking  not  rough,  but  often  used  for  glabrous,  i.  e.  not  pu- 
bescent. 

Soboliferous,  bearing  shoots  (Snboles)  from  near  the  ground. 

Solitary,  single ,  not  associated  with  others. 

So7-diil,  dull  or  dirty  in  hue. 

Sorediate,  bearing  patches  on  the  surface. 

Sorosis,  name  of  a  multiple  fruit,  like  a  pine-apple. 

Sorus,  a  fruit-dot  of  Ferns,  159. 

Spadiceous,  chestnut-colored.     Also  spadix-beanug. 

Spadix,  a  flesh}'  spike  of  flowers,  75. 

Span,  the  distance  between  the  tip  of  the  thumb  and  of  little  finger  outstretchtd,  six 
or  seven  inches. 

Spathaceous,  resembling  or  furnished  with  a 

Spathe,  a  bract  which  inwraps  an  inflorescence,  75. 

Spatulate,  or  Spathulate,  shaped  like  a  spatula,  52. 

Species,  175. 

Specific  Names,  179. 

Specimens,  18-1. 

Spermaphore,  or  Spermophore,  one  of  the  names  of  the  placenta. 

Spermum,  Latin  form  of  Greek  word  for  seed;  much  used  in  composition. 

Spica,  Latin  for  spike;  hence  Spicate,  in  a  spike,  Spiciform,  in  shape  resembling  a 
spike. 

Spike,  an  inflorescence  like  a  raceme,  only  the  flowers  are  sessile,  74. 

Spikelet,  a  small  or  a  secondary'  spike;  the  inflorescence  of  Grasses. 

Spine,  41,  G4. 

Spindle-shaped,  tapering  to  each  end,  like  a  radish,  36. 

Spinesccnt,  tipped  by  or  degenerating  nito  a  thorn. 

Spinose,  or  Spiniferous,  thorny. 

Spiral  Vessels  or  ducts,  135. 

Spithameous,  span-high. 

Spora,  Greek  name  for  seed,  used  in  compound  words. 

Sporadic,  widely  dispersed. 

Sporangium,  a  spore-case  in  Ferns,  &c.,  158. 

Spore,  a  body  resulting  from  the  fructifjcation  of  Cryptogamous  plants,  in  them 
the  analogue  of  a  seed. 

Spore-case  {Sporangium),  1.58. 

Sporocarp,  162. 

Sport,  a  newly  appeared  variation,  176. 

Sporule,  same  as  a  spore,  or  a  small  spore. 

Spvmesrent,  appearing  like  frnth. 

Spur,  any  prDJecting  appendage  of  the  flower,  looking  like  a  spur  but  hollow,  as 
that  of  Larkspur,  fig.  239. 

Squamaie,  Squamose,  or  Squamaceous,  furnished  with  scales  (s/juamw). 


222  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Squamellate,  or  Squamulose,  furnishefl  witli  little  scales  {Squamell(B,  or  Sqtiamulw). 

Si/uamiJ'oi-m,  shapud  like  a  scale. 

Squarrose,  where  scales,  leaves,  or  aii}'  ap[)eiidages  spread  widely  from  the  axis  on 

which  the}'  are  thickly  set. 
Squarrulose,  diminutive  o\  squarrose ;  slightly  squarrose. 
Stachys,  Greek  for  spike. 

Stdlk,  the  stem,  petiole,  peduncle,  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Stamen,  14,  80,  98. 

Staminate,  furnished  with  stamens,  86.     Staniinedl,  relatinj^  to  the  stamens. 
Staminodium,  an  abortive  stamen,  or  other  body  in  place  of  a  stamen. 
Standard,  the  upper  petal  of  a  papilionaceous  corolla,  02. 
Starch,  136,  163. 

Station,  the  particular  kind  of  situation  in  which  a  plant  naturally  occuij. 
Stellate,  Stellular,  starry  or  star-like;  where  SRveral  similar  parts  spread  out  from 

a  common  centre,  like  a  star. 
Stem,  39.     Stemlet,  diminutive  stem. 
Stemiess,  destitute  or  apparently  destitute  of  stem. 
Stenos,  Greek  for  narrow ;  hence  Stenophyllous,  narrow-leaved,  Ike. 
Sterile,  barren  or  imperiect. 

Stiyma,  the  part  of  the  pistil  which  receives  the  pollen,  14,  80,  105. 
Stigmntic,  or  Stigmatose,  belonj^ing  to  the  stigma. 
Stipe  (Latin  Stipes),  the  stalk  of  a  pistil,  &c.,  when  it  has  any,  112;  also  of  a  Fern, 

158,  and  of  a  Mushroom,  172. 
Stipel,  a  stipule  of  a  leaflet,  as  of  the  Bean,  &c. 
Stipellate,  furnished  with  stipels,  as  in  the  Bean  tribe. 
Stipitate,  furnished  with  a  stipe. 

Stipulaceous,  belonging  to  stipules.     Stipulate,  furnished  with  stipules. 
Stipules,  the  appendages  one  each  side  of  the  base  of  certain  leaves,  66. 
Stirps  (plui'al,  stirpes),  Latin  for  race. 
Stock,  used  for  race  or  source.     Also  for  any  root-like  base  from  which  the  herb 

grows  up. 
Stole,  or  Stolon,  a  trailing  or  reclined  and  rooting  shoot,  40. 
Stoloniferous,  producing  stolons. 

Stomate  (Latin  Stoma,  plural  Stomata),  the  breathing-pores  of  leaves,  144. 
Stone-fruit,  119. 
Storage-leaves,  62. 

Stramineous,  straw-like,  or  straw-colored. 
Strap-shaped,  long,  flat,  and  narrow. 

Striate,  or  Striated,  marked  with  slender  longitudinal  grooves  or  stripes. 
Strict,  close  and  narrow;  straight  and  narrow. 

Strigillose,  Strigose,  beset  with  stout  and  appressed,  stiff  or  rigid  bristles. 
Strobilaceous,  relating  to  or  resembling  a  strobile. 
Strobile,  a  multiple  fruit  in  the  form  of  a  cone  or  head,  124. 
Strombuliform,  twisted,  like  a  spiral  shell. 

Strophinle,  same  as  caruncle,  126.     Strophiolate,  furnished  with  a  strophiole. 
Struma,  a  wen;  a  swelling  or  protuberance  of  any  organ. 
Strumose,  bearing  a  struma. 
Stupose,  like  tow. 

Sti/le,  a  stalk  between  ovary  and  stigma,  14,  80,  105. 
Styliferous,  Stylose,  bearing  styles  or  conspicuous  ones. 
Stylopodium,  an  epigynous  disk,  or  an  enlargement  at  the  base  of  the  style. 
Sub-,  as  a  prefix,  about,  nearly,  somewhat :  as  Subcordatv.  sliirhtiy  cordate;  Subser- 

rate,  slii,rhtly  serrate;  Subaxillary,  just  beneath  the  axil,  \c. 
Subclass,  Suborder,  Siiblribe,  178 
Subei-ose,  corky  or  cork-like  in  texture. 

Subnlate,  awl-shaped;  tapering  from  a  broadish  or  thickisii  base  to  a  sharp  point- 
Sucrisp,  as  if  cut  off  at  lower  end. 
Succuhous,  when  crowded  leaves  are  each  covered  bv  base  of  ne.\t  above. 


GLOSSARY  AND   INDEX.  223 

Suclkers,  slioots  from  subterraneMii  branohes,  .39. 

Suffrutescent,  sliglitly  shrubby  or  woody  at  the  base  only,  39, 

StJ^ruiicuse,  rather  more  than  suffrutescent,  37,  3'J. 

Sulcate,  grooved  longitudinally  with  deep  furrows. 

Superior,  above,  90;  sometimes  equivalent  to  posterior,  96. 

Supernumerary  Buds,  30,  31. 

Supervolule,  plaited  aud  convolute  in  bud,  07. 

Su//ine,  lying  flat,  with  face  upward. 

Supra-axillary,  borne  above  the  axil,  as  some  buds,  31. 

Supra-decompound,  many  times  compounded  or  divided. 

Surculvse,  producing  suckers  (Surculi)  or  shoots  resembling  them. 

Suspended,  hanging  down.     Suspended  ovules  or  seeds  hang  from  the  very  summit 

of  the  cell  which  contains  them. 
Sutural,  belonging  or  relating  to  a  suture. 

Suture,  the  line  of  junction  of  contiguous  parts  grown  together,  lOG. 
Sword-shaped,  applied  to  narrow  leaves,  with  acute  jjarallel  edges,  tapering  above. 
Syconium,  the  fig-fruit,  124. 
Sylvestrine,  growing  in  woods. 

Symmetrical  Flower,  similar  in  the  number  of  parts  of  each  set,  82. 
Sympetalous,  same  as  gamopetalous. 
Sympode,  Sympodium,  a  stem  composed  of  a  series  of  superposed  branches  in  such 

a  way  as  to  imitate  a  simple  axis,  as  in  Grape-vine. 
Synaiitherous  or  Synf/enesious,  where  stamens  are  united  by  their  anthers,  lOO. 
Syncnrpiius  (fruit  or  pistil),  comi)osed  of  several  carpels  consolidated  into  one. 
Synonym,  an  equivalent  superseded  name. 
Synsepalous,  same  as  ganiose|)alous. 
Sy4em  (artificial  and  natural),  182,  183. 
Systematic  Botany,  the  study  of  plants  after  their  kinds,  9. 

Tabescent,  wasting  or  shrivelling. 

Tail,  any  long  and  slender  prolongation  of  an  organ. 

Taper-pointed,  same  as  acuminate,  54. 

Tap-root,  a  root  with  a  stout  tapering  body.  .'52-35. 

Tawny,  dull  yellowish,  with  a  tinge  of  brown. 

Taxonomy,  the  part  of  botany  which  treats  of  classification. 

Tegmen,  a  name  for  the  inner  seed-coat. 

Tendril,  a  thread-shaped  organ  used  for  climbing,  40. 

Terete,  long  and  round;  same  as  cyliivlrical,  only  it  ma}'  taper. 

Terminal,  borne  at,  or  belonging  to,  the  extremity  or  summit. 

Termlnolor/y  trea.ts  oi  technical  terms;  same  as  Glossology,  181. 

Ternate,  Ternately,  in  threes. 

Tessellnte,  in  checker-work. 

Testa,  the  outer  (and  usuall_v  the  harder)  coat  or  shell  of  the  seed,  125. 

Testaceous,  the  color  of  unglazed  pottery. 

Tetra-  (in  words  of  Greek  composition),  four;  as,  Tetracoccous,  of  four  cocci. 

Tetradynamous,  where  a  flower  has  six  stamens,  two  shorter  than  the  four,  101. 

Tetrayonal,  four-angled.     Tetragynous,  with  four  pistils  or  styles.     Tetramerous, 

with  its  parts  or  sets  in  fours.     Tetrandrous,  with  four  stamens,  100. 
Tetraspore,  a  quadruple  spore,  169. 

Thalaniajlorous,  with  petals  and  stamens  inserted  on  the  torus  or  Thalamus. 
Thallophyta,  Thallophytes,  165. 
Thallus,  a  stratum,  in  place  of  stem  and  leaves,  165. 
Theca,  a  case;  the  cells  or  lobes  of  the  anther. 
Thecaphore,  the  stipe  of  a  carpel,  113. 
Thorn,  an  indurated  pointed  branch,  41,  42 
Thread-shaped,  slender  and  round  or  roundish,  like  a  thrend. 
Throat,  the  opening  or  gorge  of  a  monopetaioiis  corolla.  &c.,  where  the  border  and 

the  tube  join,  and  a  little  below,  89. 


224  GLOSSAr.Y  ANT)   INDEX. 

Tliijrse  or  Thyrsnis,  a  compact  and  [ivramidal  panicle  of  cj'nies  or  c\Tnules,  79. 

Tuiatntuse.,  clothed  vviUi  niatled  woolly  liuirs  (UmuiUuin). 

Toii(jue-sluijJtid,  long  and  tlat,  but  tliickish  and  blunt. 

I'ooLhtd,  furnished  with  teeth  or  short  projections  of  any  sort  on  the  margin;  used 
especially  when  these  arc  sharp,  like  saw-teeth,  and  do  not  point  forwards,  55. 

Top-s-liaped,  shaped  like  a  top,  or  a  cone  with  apex  downwards. 

Torosc,  Tovulose,  knobby;  where  a  cj-lindrical  body  is  swollen  at  intervals. 

Torus,  the  receptacle  of  the  tlower,  81,  112. 

Trachea,  a  spiral  duct. 

Trachys,  Greek  for  rough;  used  in  compounds,  as,  Trachyspermous,  rough-seeded. 

Transverse,  across,  standing  right  and  left  instead  of  fore  and  aft. 

Tri-  (in  composition),  three;  as, 

Triadelphous,  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  three  bundles,  99, 

Triaudrous,  where  the  tlower  has  three  stamens,  112. 

Tribe,  178. 

Trichome,  of  the  nature  of  hair  or  pubescence. 

Trichutoiiious,  three-forked.    'Tricoccuus,  of  three  cocci  or  roundish  carpels. 

Tricolor,  having  three  colors.     Tricostate,  having  three  ribs. 

Tricuspidute,  three-pointed.     Tridentate,  three-toothed. 

Ti-iennial,  lasting  for  three  years. 

Triftirious,  in  three  vertical  rows;  looking  three  ways. 

Trifid.  three-cleft,  56. 

Trifoliate,  three-leaved.     TrifoUolate,  of  three  leaflets. 

Trifurcate,  three-forked.     Trigonous,  three-angled,  or  triangular. 

Trigynous,  with  three  pistils  or  styles,  110.     Trijugate,  in  three  pairs  (Jugi). 

Trilobed  or  Trilobate,  three-lobed,  55. 

Trilocular,  three-celled,  as  the  pistils  or  pods  in  fig.  328-330. 

Trimerous,  with  its  parts  in  threes.  Trimorphism,  117.  Trimorphic  or  Trimor- 
phous,  in  three  forms. 

Trinervate,  three-nerved,  or  with  three  slender  ribs. 

Tricecious,  where  there  are  three  sorts  of  flowers  on  the  same  or  different  individ- 
uals, as  in  Red  Maple.     A  form  of  Polygamous. 

Tripartible,  separable  into  three  pieces.     Tripartite,  three-parted,  55. 

Tripetalous,  having  three  petals. 

Tnphyllous,  three-leaved;  composed  of  three  pieces. 

Tripinnate,  thrice  pinnate,  59.     Tripinnatijid,  thrice  pinnately  cleft,  57. 

Triple-ribbed,  Triple-nerved,  &c.,  where  a  midrib  branches  into  three,  near  the  base 
of  the  leaf. 

Triquetrous,  sharply  three-angled;  and  especially  with  the  sides  concave,  like  a 
ba3'onet. 

Tiiserial,  or  Triseriate,  in  three  rows,  under  each  other. 

Tristichous,  in  three  longitudinal  or  perpendicular  ranks. 

Tristigmatic,  or  Tristigmatose,  having  three  stigmas. 

Trisulcate,  three-grooved. 

Triiernnte,  three  times  ternate,  59. 

Trivial  Name,  the  specific  name. 

Trochlear,  pulley-shaped. 

Trumpet-shaped,  tubular;  enlarged  at  or  towards  the  summit. 

Truncate,  as  if  cut  off  at  the  top. 

Trunk,  the  main  stem  or  general  bodv  of  a  stem  or  tree. 

Tube  (of  corolla,  &c.),  89. 

Tuber,  a  thickened  portion  of  a  subterranean  stem  or  branch,  provided  with  ej'es 
(buds)  on  the  sides.  44. 

Tubercle,  a  small  excrescence. 

Tubercled,  or  Tuberculate.  bearing  excrescences  or  pimples. 

Tubcef 01111 ,  trumpet-shaped. 

Tuberous,  resembling  a  tuber.     Tiiberiferous,  hearing  tubers. 

Tubular,  hollow  and  (jf  an  elongated  form;  hollowed  like  a  pipe,  91. 


GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX.  225 

Tubulijlorous,  bearing  only  tubular  flowers. 

Tunicate,  coaleil;  invested  witii  layeis,  as  an  onion,  46. 

Turbinate,  top-shaped. 

Turio  (plural  turiones),  strong  young  shoots  or  suckers  springing  out  of  the  ground  ; 

as  -Vsparagus-shoots. 
Turnip-shaped,  broader  than  high,  abruptl3'  narrowed  below,  35. 
Twining,  ascending  by  coiling  round  a  support,  39. 
Type,  the  ideal  pattern,  10. 
Typical,  well  exemplifying  the  characteristics  of  a  species,  genus,  &c. 

Uliginose,  growing  in  swamps. 

Umbel,  the  umbrella-like  form  of  inflorescence,  74. 

Umbellate,  in  umbels.      Umbellifernus,  bearing  umbels. 

Umbellet  (uinbellula),  a  secondar}-  or  partial  umbel,  76. 

Umbilicate,  depressed  in  the  centre,  like  the  ends  of  an  apple;  with  a  navel. 

Umbonate,  bossed;  furnisiied  with  a  low,  rounded  projection  like  a  boss  (umbo). 

Umbraculifurm,  umbrella-shaped. 

Unarmed,  destitute  of  s])ines,  prickles,  and  the  like. 

Uncial,  an  inch  {uncia)  in  length. 

Uncinate,  or  Uncate,  hook-shaped  :  hooked  over  at  the  end. 

Under-shrub,  partially  shrubby,  or  a  very  low  shrub. 

Undulate,  or  Undate,  wavy,  or  wavy-margined,  55. 

Unequally  pinnate,  pinnate  with  an  odd  number  of  leaflets,  65. 

Unguiculate,  furnished  with  a  claw  (unguis),  91. 

Uni-,  in  compound  words,  one;  as  Unicellular,  one-celled. 

Unijlorous,  one-flowered.     Unifoliate,  one-leaved. 

UnifoUolate,  of  one  leaflet,  59.      Unijugate,  of  one  pair. 

Unilabiate,  one-lipped.     Unilateral,  one-sided. 

Unilocular,  one-celled.     Uniovulate,  having  onlv  one  ovule. 

Unisenal,  in  one  horizontal  row. 

Unisexual,  having  stamens  or  pistils  only,  85. 

Univalved,  a  pod  of  only  one  piece  after  dehiscence. 

Unsymmetrical  Floivers,  86. 

Urceolate,  urn-shaped. 

Utricle,  a  small  thin-walled,  one-seeded  fruit,  as  of  Goosefoot,  121. 

Utricular,  like  a  small  bladder. 

Vaginate,  sheathed,  surrounded  by  a  sheath  (vagina). 

Valve,  one  of  the  pieces  (or  doors)  into  which  a  dehiscent  pod,  or  any  similar  body, 
splits,  122,  123. 

Valvate,  Valvular,  opening  by  valves.     Valvate,  in  estivation,  97. 

Variety,  176. 

Vascular,  containing  vessels,  or  consisting  of  vessels  or  ducts,  134. 

Vascular  Cryptogams,  156. 

Vaulted,  arched  ;  same  as  fornicate. 

Vegetable  Life,  &c.,  128.     Vegetable  anatomy,  129. 

Veins,  the  small  ribs  or  branches  of  the  framework  of  leaves,  &c.,  49,  50. 

Veined,  Veiny,  furnished  with  evident  veins.     Veinless,  destitute  of  veins. 

Veinlets,  the  smaller  ramifications  of  veins,  50. 

Velate,  furnished  with  a  veil. 

Velutinous,  velvety  to  the  touch. 

Venation,  the  veining  of  leaves,  &c.,  50. 

Venenate,  poisonous. 

Venose,  veiny;  furnished  with  conspicuous  veins. 

Ventral,  belonging  to  that  side  of  a  simple  pistil,  or  other  organ,  which  looks  to- 
wards the  axis  or  centre  of  the  flower;  the  opposite  of  dorsal;  as  the 

Ventral  Suture,  106. 

Ventricose,  inflated  or  swelled  out  on  one  side. 

15 


226  GLOSSARY   AND   INDEX. 

Venulose,  furnished  with  veinlets. 

Vermicular,  worm-like,  sliaped  like  worms. 

Vernal,  belonging  to  spriiig. 

Vernation,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  the  bud,  71. 

Vernicose,  the  surface  appearing  as  if  varnished. 

Verrucose,  warty;    beset  with  little  projections  like  warts. 

Versatile,  attached  by  one  point,  so  that  it  may  swing  to  and  fro,  101. 

Vertex,  same  as  apex. 

Vertical,  upright,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  lengthwise. 

V^erticil,  a  whorl,  68.      Verticillate,  whorled,  68. 

Verticillaster,  a  false  whorl,  formed  of  a  pair  of  opposite  cymes. 

Vesicular,  bladdeiy. 

Vespertine,  appearing  or  expanding  at  evening. 

Vessels,  ducts,  &e.,  134. 

Vexillary,    Vexillar,  relating  to  the 

Vexillum,  the  standard  of  a  papilionaceous  flower,  92. 

Villose,  shaggy  with  long  and  soft  hairs  (Villosity). 

Vimineous,  producing  slender  twigs,  such  as  those  used  for  wicker-work. 

Vine,  in  the  American  use,  any  trailing  or  climbing  stem;  as  a  Grape-vine. 

Virescent,  Viindescent,  greemah;  turning  green. 

Virgate,  wand-shape;  as  a  long,  straight,  and  slender  twig. 

Viscous,  Viscid,  having  a  glutinous  surface. 

Vitta  (plural  vittce),  the  oil-tubes  of  the  fruit  of  Umbellifera;. 

Vitelline,  yellow,  of  the  hue  of  j'olk  of  egg. 

Viviparous,  sprouting  or  germinating  while  attached  to  the  parent  plant. 

Voluble,  twining;  as  the  stem  of  Hops  and  Beans,  39. 

Volute,  rolled  up  in  any  way. 

Wavy,  the  surface  or  margin  alternately  convex  and  concave,  55. 

Waxy,  resembling  beeswax  in  texture  or  appearance. 

Wedge-shaped,  broad  above,  tapering  by  straight  lines  to  a  narrow  base,  53. 

Wheel-shaped,  89. 

Whorl,  an  arrangement  of  leaves,  &c.,  in  circles  around  the  stem. 

Whorled,  arranged  in  whorls,  68. 

Wing,  any  membranous  expansion.      Wings  of  papilionaceous  flowers,  92. 

Winged,  furnished  with  a  wing;  as  the  fruit  of  Ash  and  Elm,  tig.  300,  301. 

Wood,  133,  142.      Woody,  of  the  texture  or  consisting  of  wood. 

Woody  Fibre,  or  Wood-Cells,  134. 

Woolly,  clothed  with  long  and  entangled  soft  hairs. 

Work  in  plants,  149,  155. 

Xanthos,  Greek  for  yellow,  used  in  compounds;  as  Xanthocnrpus,  yellow-fruited. 

Zygomorphous,  said  of  a  flower  which  can  be  bisected  only  in  one  plane  into  similai 
halves. 


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